The Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by
C. Alphonso Smith

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book
       with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary

Author: C. Alphonso Smith

Release Date: February 15, 2010 [EBook #31277]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR ***




Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net






[Transcriber's Note:

This text is intended for users whose text readers cannot use the "real"
(Unicode/UTF-8) version of the file. Characters that could not be fully
displayed are shown in alternative forms:

       (circumflex in place of macron or "long" mark;
    the circumflex in its own right does not occur)
  y: : : (long y and ; the sequence "y:" does not occur in the
    Old English material, and ":" does not occur at all)

Characters with more than one diacritic (rare), and some less common
combinations such as accented , are shown "top to bottom" in brackets:
[] [] (long a with accent,  with accent). Greek words (also rare)
have been transliterated and shown between +marks+; there should be no
confusion between this and the + as printed.

The short vowels e and o are sometimes shown with ogonek (reversed
cedilla). In the introductory section on vowel sounds, and in the
overall Glossary, these are shown as [E,] [e,] [O,] [o,]. Elsewhere the
ogonek was simply omitted; there are no minimal pairs (different words
distinguished only by this sign).

See the Poetry section (between V and VI in Part III, Readings) for
display of characters specific to that section.

Italics are shown with _lines_. Boldface is shown with #hash marks#.
In the printed book, boldface was used for all Anglo-Saxon other than
exercises and reading passages; it has been omitted from the e-text
except when necessary for clarity.

In references to numbered Sections, "Note" may mean either an inset Note
or a footnote.

In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), page numbers and line
breaks have been retained for use with the linenotes and Glossary. Page
numbers are shown in [[double brackets]]. In the verse selections, line
numbers in the notes have been replaced with line numbers from the
original texts, printed in brackets as shown. The distinction between
linenotes and numbered footnotes is in the original.

Single brackets [] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the
symbols + = < >. Text in [[double brackets]] was added by the
transcriber.]




              ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR

               AND EXERCISE BOOK


      With Inflections, Syntax, Selections
           for Reading, and Glossary


                       By

        C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D.

        Late Professor of English in the
          United States Naval Academy




                ALLYN and BACON
          Boston   New York   Chicago
            Atlanta   San Francisco




  Copyright, 1896, by
  C. ALPHONSO SMITH.


  IAI


  Norwood Press
  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith
  Norwood Mass. U.S.A.




PREFACE.


The scope of this book is indicated in  5. It is intended for
beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not
been forgotten: "Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the
understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the
lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by that time he cometh
to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of
fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of grammer,
lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small
stickes." --_The Governour_, Cap.X.

Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is
planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of
historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology,
than as a general introduction to Germanic philology.

The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill
necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions
given in the various chapters.

The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of King
Alfred's day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand,
though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West
Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions
contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their
intentional employment in the Exercises.

For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse has been had
chiefly to Sievers' _Abriss der angelschsischen Grammatik_ (1895).
Constant reference has been made also to the same author's earlier and
larger _Angelschsishe Grammatik_, translated by Cook. Amore sparing
use has been made of Cosijn's _Altwestschsische Grammatik_.

For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wlfing's _Syntax in
den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I._ (Bonn, 1894) has proved
indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead
one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the
most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet
been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet's
_Anglo-Saxon Reader_, Bright's _Anglo-Saxon Reader_, and Cook's _First
Book in Old English_.

The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my
_Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose_ (Publications of the Modern
Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No.2).

Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this
book, Itake pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient assistance
that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I
owe more than to Dr. J.E. Wlfing, of the University of Bonn; Prof.
James A.Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. W.S. Currell,
of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J.Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr
College; and Prof. L.M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have
each rendered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting
typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms
and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through
the press.

    C. ALPHONSO SMITH.

  Louisiana State University,
  Baton Rouge, September, 1896.




PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.


In preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in the first
edition have been corrected and a few sentences added. The chief
difference between the two editions, however, consists in the
introduction of more reading matter and the consequent exposition of Old
English meter. Both changes have been made at the persistent request of
teachers and students of Old English.

Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new
material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and
upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English.

Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition.
Ihave again to thank Dr. J.E. Wlfing, Prof. James A.Harrison, Prof.
W.S. Currell, and Prof. J.Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms
also of Prof. J.M. Hart, of Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of
Williams College; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of
Vermont, Iam indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely
appreciated.

    C. ALPHONSO SMITH.

  August, 1898.




PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.


Among those who have kindly aided in making this edition free from
error, Iwish to thank especially my friend Dr. John M.McBryde, Jr., of
Hollins Institute, Virginia.

    C. ALPHONSO SMITH.

  University of North Carolina,
  Chapel Hill, February, 1903.




TABLE OF CONTENTS.


PART I.--INTRODUCTION.

Chapters                                                       Pages

      I. History ( 1-5)                                           1
     II. Sounds ( 6-11)                                           4
    III. Inflections ( 12-19)                                    10
     IV. Order of Words ( 20-21)                                 18
      V. Practical Suggestions ( 22-24)                          21

PART II.--ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

     VI. The a-Declension: Masculine a-Stems ( 25-30)            27
    VII. Neuter a-Stems ( 31-36)                                 30
   VIII. The -Declension ( 37-42)                               33
     IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension ( 43-55)          35
      X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs ( 56-62)     39
     XI. The Weak or n-Declension ( 63-66)                       44
    XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions ( 67-71)        47
   XIII. Pronouns ( 72-77)                                       50
    XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak ( 78-87)                    53
     XV. Numerals ( 88-92)                                       57
    XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions ( 93-95)        60
   XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs ( 96-100)          64
  XVIII. Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax of Moods ( 101-108)       68
    XIX. Classes II and III ( 109-113)                           74
     XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs ( 114-121)   78
    XXI. Weak Verbs ( 122-133)                                   82
   XXII. Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with #habban#, #bon#,
           and #weoran# (134-143)                              90

PART III.--SELECTIONS FOR READING.

         PROSE.

         Introductory                                             98
      I. The Battle of Ashdown                                    99
     II. A Prayer of King Alfred                                 101
    III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan                     102
         Ohthere's First Voyage                                  103
         Ohthere's Second Voyage                                 106
         Wulfstan's Voyage                                       107
     IV. The Story of Cdmon                                     111
      V. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care                   116

         POETRY.

         Introductory                                            122
     VI. Extracts from Beowulf                                   136
    VII. The Wanderer                                            148

GLOSSARIES.

      I. Old English--Modern English                             155
     II. Modern English--Old English                             190


       *       *       *       *       *
           *       *       *       *

                  OLD ENGLISH

             GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES

           *       *       *       *
       *       *       *       *       *


OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK.




PART I.

INTRODUCTION.




CHAPTER I.

HISTORY.


1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three
periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too
much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which
scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their
limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes;
but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has
never been lost.


2. The first of these periods is that of OLD ENGLISH, or ANGLO-SAXON,[1]
commonly known as the period of _full inflections_. _E.g._ #stn-as#,
_stones_; #car-u#, _care_; #will-a#, _will_; #bind-an#, _to bind_;
#help-a# (=#ath#), _they help_.

It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about one
hundred years after the Norman Conquest,--from A.D. 449 to 1150; but
there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period.
There were four[2] distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the
Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in
the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon,
spoken south and west of the Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the
neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most
nearly akin to the Mercian; but the best known of them is the West
Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote
and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as
distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best
represented in the writings of Abbot lfric (955?-1025?).

    [Footnote 1: This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term
    _Angli Saxones_, which Latin writers used as a designation for
    the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old
    Saxons. But Alfred and lfric both use the term _Englisc_, not
    Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far
    outnumbering the other tribes. Thus _Englisc_ (=_Angel_ +
    _isc_) became the general name for the language spoken.]

    [Footnote 2: As small as England is, there are six distinct
    dialects spoken in her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire
    dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many
    Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson's _Northern Farmer_.]


3. The second period is that of MIDDLE ENGLISH, or the period of
_leveled inflections_, the dominant vowel of the inflections being e.
_E.g._ #ston-es#, #car-e#, #will-e#, #bind-en# (or#bind-e#),
#help-eth#, each being, as in the earlier period, adissyllable.

The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest
representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384)
in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period: the
Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland (divided
into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the Mercian; and
the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. London,
situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech
center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and
Wiclif employed.

  NOTE.--It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our
  language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not
  plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus
  to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that
  dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech
  of London was, in Chaucer's time, amixture of Southern and
  Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon
  dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they continued
  to do, so that "Chaucer's language," as Dr. Murray says, "is more
  Southern than standard English eventually became." See also
  Morsbach, _Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache_
  (1888).


4. The last period is that of MODERN ENGLISH, or the period of _lost
inflections_. _E.g._ _stones_, _care_, _will_, _bind_, _help_, each
being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1500 to the
present time. It has witnessed comparatively few grammatical changes,
but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by
additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their
values.


5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of
Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this
knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West
Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge
will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle
English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for
the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue.

  NOTE.--The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch of
  the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the
  Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as follows:

            { North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse.
            {
            {                               { Old High German,
  Germanic  { East Germanic: Gothic.        { (to A.D. 1100,)
            {                               {
            {                 { High German { Middle High German,
            {                 {             { (A.D. 1100-1500,)
            {                 {             {
            { West Germanic   {             { New High German.
                              {             { (A.D. 1500-.)
                              {
                              { Low German  { Dutch,
                                            { Old Saxon,
                                            { Frisian,
                                            { English.




CHAPTER II.

SOUNDS.


#Vowels and Diphthongs.#

6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the
macron (). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the
student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes
words meaning wholly different things: #fr#, _he went_, #for#, _for_;
#gd#, _good_, #God#, _God_; #mn#, _crime_, #man#, _man_.

Long vowels and diphthongs:

   as in f_a_ther: #stn#, _a stone_.
  : as in m_a_n (prolonged): #sl:pan#, _to sleep_.
   as in th_e_y: #hr#, _here_.
   as in mach_i_ne: #mn#, _mine_.
   as in n_o_te (pure, not diphthongal): #bc#, _book_.
   as in r_u_le: #tn#, _town_.
  y: as in German gr__n, or English gr_ee_n (with lips rounded):[1]
      #bry:d#, _bride_.

The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel.
The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of
_er_ in _sooner_, _faster_ (=_soon-uh_, _fast-uh_). The long diphthongs
(: is not a diphthong proper) are o, e, and a. The sound of o is
approximately reproduced in _mayor_ (=_m-uh_); that of e in the
dissyllabic pronunciation of _fear_ (=_f-uh_). But a = _:-uh_. This
diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from _ea_ in _pear_, _bear_,
etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States
(=_b-uh_, _p-uh_).


7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs
shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that
Modern English _red_, for example, is the shortened form of _reed_, or
that _mat_ is the shortened form of _mate_. Pronounce these long sounds
with increasing rapidity, and _reed_ will approach _rid_, while _mate_
will approach _met_. The Old English short vowel sounds are:

  a as in _a_rtistic: #habban#, _to have_.
   as in m_a_nkind: #dg#, _day_.
  e, [e,] as in l_e_t: #stelan#, _to steal_, #s[e,]ttan#, _to set_.
  i as in s_i_t: #hit#, _it_.
  o as in br_oa_d (but shorter): #God#, _God_.
  [o,] as in n_o_t: #l[o,]mb#, _lamb_.
  u as in f_u_ll: #sunu#, _son_.
  y as in m_i_ller (with lips rounded)[1]: #gylden#, _golden_.

  NOTE.--The symbol [e,] is known as _umlaut_-e ( 58). It stands for
  Germanic _a_, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic
  _e_. The symbol [o,] is employed only before m and n. It, too,
  represents Germanic _a_. But Alfred writes #manig# or #monig#,
  _many_; #lamb# or #lomb#, _lamb_; #hand# or #hond#, _hand_, etc.
  The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians.

  [Transcriber's Note:
  The diacritic is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open
  to the right).]

    [Footnote 1: Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the
    lip-opening is rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out
    and puckered as if preparing to pronounce _w_. Thus _o_ and _u_
    are round vowels: add _-ing_ to each, and phonetically you have
    added _-wing_. _E.g. go^{w}ing_, _su^{w}ing_.]


#Consonants.#

8. There is little difference between the values of Old English
consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions,
however, require notice:

The digraph #th# is represented in Old English texts by  and , no
consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred,
 (capital, ) is the more common: #s#, _those_; #t#, _that_;
#binde#, _he binds_.

The consonant #c# had the hard sound of _k_, the latter symbol being
rare in West Saxon: #cyning#, _king_; #cwn#, _queen_; #c#, _known_.
When followed by a palatal vowel sound,--_e_, _i_, __, _ea_, _eo_,
long or short,--a vanishing _y_ sound was doubtless interposed (_cf._
dialectic _k^{y}ind_ for _kind_). In Modern English the combination
has passed into _ch_: #cealc#, _chalk_; #cdan#, _to chide_; #l:ce#,
_leech_; #cild#, _child_; #cowan#, _to chew_. This change (_c_ > _ch_)
is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Modern
English _gun_, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels
(_cf._ dialectic _g^{y}irl_ for _girl_).

The combination #cg#, which frequently stands for #gg#, had probably the
sound of _dge_ in Modern English _edge_: #ecg#, _edge_; #secgan#, _to
say_; #brycg#, _bridge_. Initial #h# is sounded as in Modern English:
#habban#, _to have_; #hlga#, _saint_. When closing a syllable it has
the sound of German _ch_: #slh#, _he slew_; #hah#, _high_; #urh#,
_through_.


9. An important distinction is that between voiced (orsonant) and
voiceless (orsurd) consonants.[2] In Old English they are as follows:

  VOICED.                    VOICELESS.

    g                          h, c
    d                          t
    ,  (as in _th_ough)      ,  (asin _th_in)
    b                          p
    f (= v)                    f
    s (= z)                    s

It is evident, therefore, that  (), f, and s have double values in Old
English. If voiced, they are equivalent to _th_ (in_th_ough), _v_, and
_z_. Otherwise, they are pronounced as _th_ (in_th_in), _f_ (in_f_in),
and _s_ (in_s_in). The syllabic environment will usually compel the
student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring
between vowels, they are always voiced: #er#, _other_; #ofer#, _over_;
#rsan#, _to rise_.

  NOTE.--The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is,
  that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced
  consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of
  Assimilation. Thus when _de_ is added to form the preterit of a
  verb whose stem ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced,
  or assimilated, to t: #settan#, _to set_, #sette# (but #treddan#,
  _to tread_, has #tredde#); #sl:pan#, _to sleep_, #sl:pte#;
  #drencan#, _to drench_, #drencte#; #cyssan#, _to kiss_, #cyste#.
  See  126, Note1.

    [Footnote 2: A little practice will enable the student to see
    the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and
    voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant,--_d_ in _den_,
    for example, but without the assistance of _en_,--and there will
    be heard a gurgle, or _vocal_ murmur. But in _t_, of _ten_,
    there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the
    organs.]


#Syllables.#

10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with
consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain
consonants may form syllables: _oven_ (=_ov-n_), _battle_ (=_bt-l_);
(_cf._ also the vulgar pronunciation of _elm_).

A syllable may be (1)weak or strong, (2)open or closed, (3)long or
short.

(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often
different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable.
_Cf._ weak and strong _my_ in "Iwant my lrge hat" and "Iwant m[y]
hat."

(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: #d-man#, _to deem_;
##, _thou_; #sca-can#, _to shake_; #d-ges#, _by day_. A closed
syllable ends in one or more consonants: #ing#, _thing_; #gd#, _good_;
#gld#, _glad_.

(3) A syllable is long (_a_) if it contains a long vowel or a long
diphthong: #dr-fan#, _to drive_; #l-can#, _to lock_; #sl:-pan#, _to
sleep_; #co-san#, _to choose_; (_b_) if its vowel or diphthong is
followed by more than one consonant:[3] #crft#, _strength_; #heard#,
_hard_; #lib-ban#, _to live_; #feal-lan#, _to fall_. Otherwise, the
syllable is short: #e#, _which_; #be-ran#, _to bear_; #t#, _that_;
#gie-fan#, _to give_.

  NOTE 1.--A single consonant belongs to the following syllable:
  #h-lig#, _holy_ (not #hl-ig#); #wr-tan#, _to write_; #f-der#,
  _father_.

  NOTE 2.--The student will notice that the syllable may be long and
  the vowel short; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable
  short.

  NOTE 3.--Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables,
  have regularly become long in Modern English: #we-fan#, _to
  weave_; #e-tan#, _to eat_; #ma-cian#, _to make_; #na-cod#,
  _naked_; #a-can#, _to ache_; #o-fer#, _over_. And Old English long
  vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been
  shortened: #brost#, _breast_; #h:l#, _health_; #sl:pte#,
  _slept_; #l:dde#, _led_.

    [Footnote 3: Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single
    consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed
    syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the
    single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a
    following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and
    short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly
    long. _Cf._ Modern English _at all_ (=_a-tall_).]


#Accentuation.#

11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable,
never on the inflectional ending: #brngan#, _to bring_; #st[]nas#,
_stones_; #brende#, _bearing_; #[]delnes#, _idleness_;
#fr[]ondscipe#, _friendship_.

But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first
member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger
stress: #hofon-rce#, _heaven-kingdom_; #nd-giet#, _intelligence_;
#s-fst#, _truthful_; #gd-cund#, _divine_; #all-unga#, _entirely_;
#bl[]e-lce#, _blithely_. But #be-h[]t#, _promise_; #ge-bd#,
_prayer_; #ge-f[]alc#, _joyous_; #be-sne#, _immediately_.

Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable:
#for-gefan#, _to forgive_; #of-lnnan#, _to cease_; #-cn[]wan#, _to
know_; #wi-stndan#, _to withstand_; #on-scan#, _to resist_.

  NOTE.--The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix,
  while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern
  English words: _prference_, _prefr_; _cntract_ (noun),
  _contrct_ (verb); _bstinence_, _abstan_; _prfume_ (noun),
  _perfme_ (verb).




CHAPTER III.

INFLECTIONS.


#Cases.#

12. There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive,
the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.[1] Each of them,
except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used
without prepositions, they have, in general, the following functions:

(_a_) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject
of a finite verb.

(_b_) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is the case
of the possessor or source. It may be called the _of_ case.

(_c_) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called
the _to_ or _for_ case.

(_d_) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case
of the direct object.

(_e_) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is
the case of the means or the method. It may be called the _with_ or _by_
case.

The following paradigm of #m#, _the mouth_, illustrates the several
cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously added in the
Modern English equivalents):

       _Singular._                  _Plural._

  _N._ m = _the mouth._           m-as = _the mouths._

  _G._ m-es[2] = _of the mouth_   m-a = _of the mouths_
         (= _the mouth's_).           (= _the mouths'_).

  _D._ m-e = _to_ or _for the     m-um = _to_ or _for the mouths._
         mouth._

  _A._ m = _the mouth._           m-as = _the mouths._

  _I._ me = _with_ or _by means   m-um = _with_ or _by means
         of the mouth._               of the mouths._

    [Footnote 1: Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But
    it seems best to consider the vocative as only a _function_ of
    the nominative _form_.]

    [Footnote 2: Of course our "apostrophe and _s_" (= _'s_) comes
    from the Old English genitive ending -es. The _e_ is preserved
    in _Wednesday_ (= Old English #Wdnes dg#). But at a very early
    period it was thought that _John's book_, for example, was a
    shortened form of _John his book_. Thus Addison (_Spectator_,
    No. 135) declares _'s_ a survival of _his_. How, then, would he
    explain the _s_ of _his_? And how would he dispose of _Mary's
    book_?]


#Gender.#

13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English,
depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus #m#,
_mouth_, is masculine; #tunge#, _tongue_, feminine; #age#, _eye_,
neuter.

No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender of
every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated
in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the definite
article, #s# for the masculine, #so# for the feminine, and #t# for
the neuter: #s m#, #so tunge#, #t age# = _the mouth_, _the
tongue_, _the eye_.

All nouns ending in #-dm#, #-hd#, #-scipe#, or #-ere# are masculine
(_cf._ Modern English wis_dom_, child_hood_, friend_ship_, work_er_).
Masculine, also, are nouns ending in -a.

Those ending in #-nes# or #-ung# are feminine (_cf._ Modern English
good_ness_, and gerundial forms in _-ing_: see_ing_ is believ_ing_).

Thus #s wsdm#, _wisdom_; #s cildhd#, _childhood_; #s frondscipe#,
_friendship_; #s fiscere#, _fisher(man)_; #s hunta#, _hunter_; #so
gelcnes#, _likeness_; #so leornung#, _learning_.


#Declensions.#

14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel
Declension and the Consonant Declension. Anoun is said to belong to the
Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this
vowel being then known as the _stem-characteristic_; but if the
stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant
Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of
the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vowels, and as many
subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there were consonants. All
Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended
their stems originally in a, , i, or u. Hence there are but four
subdivisions of the Vowel Declension: a-stems, -stems, i-stems, and
u-stems.

The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its
nouns Strong Nouns.

  NOTE.--The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm
  (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence transferred to
  nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could
  form its preterit out of its own resources; that is, without
  calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English
  _run_, _ran_; _find_, _found_; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation
  had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: _gain_,
  _gained_; _help_, _helped_.


15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended,
with but few exceptions, in the letter n (_cf._ Latin _homin-em_,
_ration-em_, Greek +poimen-a+). They are called, therefore, n-stems,
the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak
Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns.


16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic
stem-characteristic (orfinal letter of the stem), there would be no
difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem,
-stem, i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the
most part, either been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long
before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a
rigid comparison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with
the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a
single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may
be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group
(5, Note).

This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation to
the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues,
is known simply as _Germanic_ (Gmc.), or as _Primitive Germanic_.
Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of the students of
this book, but the following table should be examined as illustrating
the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E.
= Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English):

                     {            {Gmc. _staina-z_,
                     {(1)a-stems {O.E. #stn#,
                     {            {Mn.E. _stone_.
                     {
                     {            {Gmc. _hall_,
                     {(2)-stems {O.E. #heall#,
  I. Strong or Vowel {            {Mn.E. _hall_.
     Declensions     {
                     {            {Gmc. _bni-z_,
                     {(3)i-stems {O.E. #bn#,
                     {            {Mn.E. _boon_.
                     {
                     {            {Gmc. _sunu-z_,
                     {(4)u-stems {O.E. #sunu#,
                     {            {Mn.E. _son_.

                     {(1)n-stems            {Gmc. _tungn-iz_,
                     {    (Weak              {O.E. #tung-an#,
                     {    Declension)        {Mn.E. _tongue-s_.
                     {
                     {                {      {Gmc. _ft-iz_,
                     {                {(_a_) {O.E. #ft#,
  II. Consonant      {(2)Remnants    {      {Mn.E. _feet_.
      Declensions    {    of other    {
                     {    Consonant   {      {Gmc. _frijnd-iz_,
                     {    Declensions {(_b_) {O.E. #frend#,
                     {                {      {Mn.E. _friend-s_.
                     {                {
                     {                {      {Gmc. _brr-iz_,
                     {                {(_c_) {O.E. #bror#,
                     {                {      {Mn.E. _brother-s_.


  NOTE.--"It will be seen that if Old English #age#, _eye_, is said
  to be an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period
  the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old
  English language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that
  the word is inflected in a certain manner." (Jespersen, _Progress
  in Language_, 109).

  This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant.
  The division, therefore, into a-stems, -stems, etc., is made in
  the interests of grammar as well as of philology.


#Conjugations.#

17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the
Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation.

The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of
Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred
remain in Modern English (101, Note). They form their preterit and
frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the
present stem. This vowel change or modification is called _ablaut_
(pronounced _hp-lowt_): Modern English _sing, sang, sung_; _rise, rose,
risen_. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different
from that of the preterit singular, there are four _principal parts_ or
_tense stems_ in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of
Modern English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong
verb are (1)the present indicative, (2)the preterit indicative
singular, (3)the preterit indicative plural, and (4)the past
participle.

Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table:

  PRESENT.
    PRET. SING.
      PRET. PLUR.
        PAST PARTICIPLE.

  I. Btan, _to bite_:

  Ic bt-e, _I bite_ or _shall bite_.[3]
    Ic bt, _I bit_.
      W bit-on, _we bit_.
        Ic hbbe ge[4]-biten, _I have bitten_.

  II. Bodan, _to bid_:

  Ic bod-e, _I bid_ or _shall bid_.
    Ic bad, _I bade_.
      W bud-on, _we bade_.
        Ic hbbe ge-boden, _I have bidden_.

  III. Bindan, _to bind_:

  Ic bind-e, _I bind_ or _shall bind_.
    Ic bond, _I bound_.
      W bund-on, _we bound_.
        Ic hbbe ge-bund-en, _I have bound_.

  IV. Beran, _to bear_:

  Ic ber-e, _I bear_ or _shall bear_.
    Ic br, _I bore_.
      W b:r-on, _we bore_.
        Ic hbbe ge-bor-en, _I have borne_.

  V. Metan, _to measure_:

  Ic met-e, _I measure_ or _shall measure_.
    Ic mt, _I measured_.
      W m:t-on, _we measured_.
        Ic hbbe ge-met-en, _I have measured_.

  VI. Faran, _to go_:

  Ic far-e, _I go_ or _shall go_.
    Ic fr, _I went_.
      W fr-on, _we went_.
        Ic eom[5] ge-far-en, _I have (am) gone_.

  VII. Feallan, _to fall_:

  Ic feall-e, _I fall_ or _shall fall_.
    Ic foll, _I fell_.
      W foll-on, _we fell_.
        Ic eom[5] ge-feall-en, _I have (am) fallen_.

    [Footnote 3: Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the
    future. The present was used both as present proper and as
    future. _Cf._ Modern English "Igo home tomorrow," or "Iam
    going home tomorrow" for "Ishall go home tomorrow."]

    [Footnote 4: The prefix ge- (Middle English _y-_), cognate with
    Latin _co_ (_con_) and implying completeness of action, was not
    always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound
    verbs: #o-feallan#, _to fall off_, past participle #o-feallen#
    (not #o-gefeallen#). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present
    participle:

      "What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour'd bones,
      The labour of an age in piled stones?
      Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid
      Under a star-_ypointing_ pyramid."
        --_Epitaph on William Shakespeare_.

    And Shakespeare misuses it in "Y-ravished," apreterit
    (_Pericles_ III, _Prologue_ l.35).

    It survives in the archaic _y-clept_ (Old English #ge-clypod#,
    called). It appears as _a_ in _aware_ (Old English #ge-wr#),
    as _e_ in _enough_ (Old English #ge-nh#), and as _i_ in
    _handiwork_ (Old English #hand-ge-weorc#).]

    [Footnote 5: With intransitive verbs denoting _change of
    condition_, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of
    _to be_ rather than _to have_. See 139.]


18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of
Modern English) form their preterit and past participle by adding to the
present stem a suffix[6] with _d_ or _t_: Modern English _love_,
_loved_; _sleep_, _slept_.

The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the
preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive
tense-stems, or principal parts: _viz._, (1)the present indicative,
(2)the preterit indicative, and (3)the past participle.

Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table:

  PRESENT.
    PRETERIT.
      PAST PARTICIPLE.

  I. Fremman, _to perform_:

  Ic fremm-e, _I perform_ or _shall perform_.
    Ic frem-ede, _I performed_.
      Ic hbbe ge-frem-ed, _I have performed_.

  II. Bodian, _to proclaim_:

  Ic bodi-e, _I proclaim_ or _shall proclaim_.
    Ic bod-ode, _I proclaimed_.
      Ic hbbe ge-bod-od, _I have proclaimed_.

  III. Habban, _to have_:

  Ic hbbe, _I have_ or _shall have_.
    Ic hf-de, _I had_.
      Ic hbbe ge-hf-d, _I have had_.

    [Footnote 6: The theory that _loved_, for example, is a fused
    form of _love-did_ has been generally given up. The dental
    ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became
    completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages.]


19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern
English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations
mentioned. The most important of them are, #Ic mg# _I may_, #Ic mihte#
_I might_; #Ic con# _I can_, #Ic ce# _I could_; #Ic mt# _I must_, #Ic
mste# _I must_; #Ic sceal# _I shall_, #Ic sceolde# _I should_; #Ic eom#
_I am_, #Ic ws# _I was_; #Ic wille# _I will_, #Ic wolde# _I would_; #Ic
d# _I do_, #Ic dyde# _I did_; #Ic g# _I go_, #Ic ode# _I went_.

All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. The
present tense of each of them is _in origin_ a preterit, _in function_ a
present. _Cf._ Modern English _ought_ (=_owed_).




CHAPTER IV.

ORDER OF WORDS.


20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German
than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the
student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order,
even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place
to the Normal order.

The three divisions of order are (1)Normal, (2)Inverted, and
(3)Transposed.

(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal order
is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed by
its modifiers: #S hwl bi micle l:ssa onne re hwalas#, _That whale
is much smaller than other whales_; #Ond h geseah tw scipu#, _And he
saw two ships_.

(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in
independent clauses, and is employed (_a_) when some modifier of the
predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The
words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are ##
_then_, #onne# _then_, and #:r# _there_: # fr h#, _Then went he_;
#onne rna hy: ealle tweard :m fo#, _Then gallop they all toward
the property_; #ac :r bi medo genh#, _but there is mead enough_.

Inversion is employed (_b_) in interrogative sentences: #Lufast  m?#
_Lovest thou me?_ and (_c_) in imperative sentences: #Cume n rce#,
_Thy kingdom come_.

(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate
comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the
order observed in dependent clauses:[1] #onne cyme s man s t
swiftoste hors hafa#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse_
(literally, _that the swiftest horse has_); #Ne mtte h :r nn gebn
land, sian h from his gnum hm fr#, _Nor did he before find any
cultivated land, after he went from his own home_ (literally, _after he
from his own home went_).

    [Footnote 1: But in the _Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan_, in
    which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written
    discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order
    in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a
    partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except
    in the case of substantival clauses introduced by #t#. Such
    clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal _oratio
    recta_ order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative
    clause seems to have proved an important factor in the ultimate
    disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The
    influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that
    were already busily at work.]


21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief
notice.

(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate:
#H hine oferwann#, _He overcame him_ (literally, _He him overcame_);
#Dryhten him andwyrde#, _The Lord answered him_. But substantival
datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. The
following sentence illustrates both orders: #Hy: genmon Ioseph, ond
hine gesealdon cpemonnum, ond hy: hine gesealdon in gypta lond#, _They
took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt_
(literally, _They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him
sold into Egyptians' land_).

  NOTE.--The same order prevails in the case of pronominal
  nominatives used as predicate nouns: #Ic hit eom#, _It is I_
  (literally, _Iitam_); # hit eart#, _It is thou_ (literally,
  _Thou it art_).

(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses,
usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: #Breoton is grsecges
gland#, _Britain is an island of the ocean_ (literally, _ocean's
island_); #Swilce hit is ac berende on wecga rum#, _Likewise it is
also rich in ores of metals_ (literally, _metals' ores_); #Cyninga
cyning#, _King of kings_ (literally, _Kings' king_); #G witon Godes
rces gery:ne#, _Ye know the mystery of the kingdom of God_ (literally,
_Ye know God's kingdom's mystery_).

A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the
genitive:[2] #On ealdra manna sgenum#, _In old men's sayings_; #t
:ra str:ta endum#, _At the ends of the streets_ (literally, _At the
streets' ends_); #For ealra nra hlgena lufan#, _For all thy saints'
love_. See, also, 94,(5).

    [Footnote 2: The positions of the genitive are various. It
    frequently follows its noun: # bearn ra Aeniensa#, _The
    children of the Athenians_. It may separate an adjective and a
    noun: #n ly:tel s:s earm#, _A little arm of (the) sea_. The
    genitive may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a
    compound = _A little sea-arm_; #Mid monegum Godes gifum#, _With
    many God-gifts_ = _many divine gifts_.]




CHAPTER V.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.


22. In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is
dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier
forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and
stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of
the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are
reducible chiefly to two. These are (1)the regular operation of
phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and
(2)the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy.

(1) "The former of these is of physiological or _natural_ origin, and is
perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same
language; and even though different languages show different phonetic
habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between
the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the
particular laws are true for many languages.

(2) "The other principle is psychical, or mental, or _artificial_,
introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to
be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and
fitful."[1]

    [Footnote 1: Skeat, _Principles of English Etymology_, Second
    Series, 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly
    contests "the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between
    them to explain everything in linguistic development."]


(1) #Vowel-Shiftings.#

23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and
vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that
have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system
into that of Modern English.

(1) As stated in  3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were
all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to _e_. This
_e_ in Modern English is frequently dropped:

  OLD ENGLISH.      MIDDLE ENGLISH.     MODERN ENGLISH.
    stn-as           ston-es             stones
    sun-u             sun-e               son
    sun-a             sun-e               sons
    ox-an             ox-en               oxen
    swift-ra          swift-er            swifter
    swift-ost         swift-est           swiftest
    lc-ode           lok-ede             looked

(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with
such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to
infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that
while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the
modern symbol representing the sound.

  OLD         MODERN ENGLISH.
  ENGLISH.

         _o_[2]           { n = _no_; stn = _stone_; bn = _bone_;
           (as in _no_)    {   rd = _road_; c = _oak_; hl = _whole_;
                           {   hm = _home_; swan = _to sow_; gst =
                           {   _ghost_.

         _e_             { h = _he_; w = _we_;  = _thee_; m =
           (as in _he_)   {   _me_; g = _ye_; hl = _heel_; wrig =
                          {   _weary_; gelfan = _to believe_; gs =
                          {   _geese_.

   (y:)   _i_ (_y_)       { mn = _mine_; n = _thine_; wr = _wire_;
           (as in _mine_) {   my:s = _mice_; rm = _rime_ (wrongly spelt
                          {   _rhyme_); ly:s = _lice_; b = _by_;
                          {   scnan = _to shine_; stig-rp = _sty-rope_
                          {   (shortened to _stirrup_, stgan meaning
                          {   _to mount_).

         _o_             { d = _I do_; t = _too, to_; gs = _goose_;
            (as in _do_)  {   t = _tooth_; mna = _moon_; m =
                          {   _doom_; md = _mood_; wgian = _to woo_;
                          {   slh = _I slew_.

         _ou_ (_ow_)     {  = _thou_; fl = _foul_; hs = _house_;
           (as in _thou_) {   n = _now_; h = _how_; tn = _town_;
                          {   re = our; t = _out_; hld = _loud_;
                          {   send = _thousand_.


  :,      _ea_            { :: s: = _sea_; m:l = _meal_; d:lan =
   a,     (as in _sea_)  {   _to deal_; cl:ne = _clean_; gr:dig =
   o                     {   _greedy_.
                          {
                          { a: are = _ear_; ast = _east_; dram =
                          {   _dream_; gar = _year_; batan =
                          {   _to beat_.
                          {
                          { o: ro = _three_; drorig = _dreary_;
                          {   so = _she_, hrod = _reed_; dop =
                          {   _deep_.

    [Footnote 2: But Old English  preceded by w sometimes gives
    Modern English _o_ as in _two_: #tw# = _two_; #hw# = _who_;
    #hwm# = _whom_.]


(2) #Analogy.#

24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy,
for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs,
therefore, to Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and
function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the
majorities. "The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence
upon the smaller."[3] The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to
regularize. "The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is
group-influence, or Analogy--the influence exercised by the members of
an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in partial
isolation from an association-group through some formal difference."[4]

Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have
been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former
existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural endings
for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted[5]
that -as (Middle English _-es_) would soon take the lead, and become the
norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were
more an-plurals than as-plurals; but the as-plurals were doubtless more
often employed in everyday speech. _Oxen_ (Old English #oxan#) is the
sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. No group
of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular
ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines
formed their genitive singular in _-es_ (or_-s_, Modern English _'s_)
after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with
es-genitives. The weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the
ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than
two hundred have become weak.

These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern
English _-s_ in _sons_, for example, could not possibly be derived from
Old English -a in #suna#, or Middle English _-e_ in _sune_ (23, (1)).
They are cases of replacement by Analogy.

A few minor examples will quicken the student's appreciation of the
nature of the influence exercised by Analogy:

(_a_) The intrusive _l_ in _could_ (Chaucer always wrote _coud_ or
_coude_) is due to association with _would_ and _should_, in each of
which _l_ belongs by etymological right.

(_b_) _He need not_ (for _He needs not_) is due to the assimilative
influence of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, etc., which have never added
_-s_ for their third person singular (137).

(_c_) _I am friends with him_, in which _friends_ is a crystalized form
for _on good terms_, may be traced to the influence of such expressions
as _He and I are friends_, _They are friends_, etc.

(_d_) Such errors as are seen in _runned_, _seed_, _gooses_, _badder_,
_hisself_, _says I_ (usually coupled with _sayshe_) are all analogical
formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to
call these forms the products of "false analogy." The grammar involved
is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions; but the
analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of
gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally.

    [Footnote 3: Whitney, _Life and Growth of Language_, Chap.IV.]

    [Footnote 4: Sweet, _A New English Grammar_, Part I.,  535.]

    [Footnote 5: As Skeat says ( 22, (2)), Analogy is "fitful." It
    enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to
    anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its
    influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer
    employed nine _en-_plurals, and his influence served for a time
    to check the further encroachment of the _es-_plurals. As soon
    as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the
    operation of Analogy is fettered.]




PART II.

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.




THE STRONG OR VOWEL DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS.

THE a-DECLENSION.

CHAPTER VI.


(_a_) #Masculine _a_-Stems.#

[O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle
English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are
self-explaining.]

25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second or _o_-Declension of
Latin and Greek, contains only (_a_) masculine and (_b_) neuter nouns.
To this declension belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns of
the Strong Declension. At a very early period, many of the nouns
belonging properly to the i- and u-Declensions began to pass over to the
a-Declension. This declension may therefore be considered the _normal
declension_ for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong
Declension.


26. Paradigms of #s m#, _mouth_; #s fiscere#, _fisherman_; #s
hwl#, _whale_; #s mearh#, _horse_; #s finger#, _finger_:

  _Sing. N.A._  m     fiscer-e   hwl     mearh    finger
          _G._  m-es  fiscer-es  hwl-es  mar-es  fingr-es
        _D.I._  m-e   fiscer-e   hwl-e   mar-e   fingr-e

  _Plur. N.A._  m-as  fiscer-as  hwal-as  mar-as  fingr-as
          _G._  m-a   fiscer-a   hwal-a   mar-a   fingr-a
        _D.I._  m-um  fiscer-um  hwal-um  mar-um  fingr-um

  NOTE.--For meanings of the cases, see 12. The dative and
  instrumental are alike in all nouns.


27. The student will observe (1)that nouns whose nominative ends in -e
(#fiscere#) drop this letter before adding the case endings; (2)that 
before a consonant (#hwl#) changes to a in the plural;[1] (3)that h,
preceded by r (#mearh#) or l (#seolh#, _seal_), is dropped before an
inflectional vowel, the stem diphthong being then lengthened by way of
compensation; (4)that dissyllables (#finger#) having the first syllable
long, usually syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding
the case endings.[2]

    [Footnote 1: Adjectives usually retain  in closed syllables,
    changing it to a in open syllables: #hwt# (_active_), #gld#
    (_glad_), #wr# (_wary_) have G. #hwates#, #glades#, #wares#; D.
    #hwatum#, #gladum#, #warum#; but A. #hwtne#, #gldne#, #wrne#.
    Nouns, however, change to a only in open syllables followed by a
    guttural vowel, a or u. The  in the open syllables of the
    singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular,
    both being closed syllables.]

    [Footnote 2: _Cf._ Mn.E. _drizz'ling_, _rememb'ring_, _abysmal_
    (_abysm_ = _abiz^{u}m_), _sick'ning_, in which the principle of
    syncopation is precisely the same.]


28. Paradigm of the Definite Article[3] #s#, #so#, #t# = _the_:

               _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._

  _Sing. N._     s (se)       so          t
        _G._     s           :re         s
        _D._     :m (m)     :re         :m (m)
        _A._     one                     t
        _I._     y:, on       ----         y:, on

                             _All Genders._

  _Plur. N.A._                 
        _G._                   ra
        _D._                   :m (m)

    [Footnote 3: This may mean four things: (1)_The_, (2)_That_
    (demonstrative), (3)_He_, _she_, _it_, (4)_Who_, _which_,
    _that_ (relative pronoun). Mn.E. demonstrative _that_ is, of
    course, the survival of O.E. neuter #t# in its demonstrative
    sense. Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of English
    and German_, 160,3) sees a survival of dative plural
    demonstrative #:m# in such an expression as _in them days_. It
    seems more probable, however, that _them_ so used has followed
    the leadof _this_ and _these_, _that_ and _those_, in their
    double function of pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless
    some such evolution as, _Isaw them. Them what? Them boys._

    An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the
    article is seen in the _-ter_ of _Atterbury_ (= #t :re byrig#,
    _at the town_); and #:m# survives in the _-ten_ of
    _Attenborough_, the word _borough_ having become an uninflected
    neuter. Skeat, _Principles_, First Series, 185.]


29. VOCABULARY.[4]

  s bcere, _scribe_ [bc].
  s cyning, _king_.
  s dg, _day_.
  s ende, _end_.
  s engel, _angel_ [angelus].
  s frodm, _freedom_.
  s fugol (G. sometimes #fugles#), _bird_ [fowl].
  s gr, _spear_ [gore, gar-fish].
  s heofon, _heaven_.
  s hierde, _herdsman_ [shep-herd].
  ond (and), _and_.
  s secg, _man, warrior_.
  s seolh, _seal_.
  s stn, _stone_.
  s wealh, _foreigner, Welshman_ [wal-nut].
  s weall, _wall_.
  s wsdm, _wisdom_.
  s wulf, _wolf_.

    [Footnote 4: The brackets contain etymological hints that may
    help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked.
    The genitive is given only when not perfectly regular.]


30. EXERCISES.

I. 1. ra wulfa mas. 2. s fisceres fingras. 3. ra Wala cyninge.
4.:m englum ond :m hierdum. 5.ra daga ende. 6.:m bcerum ond
:m secgum s cyninges. 7.:m sole ond :m fuglum. 8. stnas
ond  gras. 9.Hwala ond mara. 10.ra engla wsdm. 11.s
cyninges bceres frodm. 12.ra hierda fuglum. 13.y: stne.
14.:m wealle.

II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welshmen's freedom.
3.Of the king's birds. 4.By the wisdom of men and angels. 5.With the
spear and the stone. 6.The herdsman's seal and the warriors' spears.
7.To the king of heaven. 8.By means of the scribe's wisdom. 9.The
whale's mouth and the foreigner's spear. 10.For the bird belonging to
(=of) the king's scribe. 11.Of that finger.




CHAPTER VII.

(_b_) #Neuter _a-_Stems.#


31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from the masculines only
in the N.A. plural.


32. Paradigms of #t hof#, _court, dwelling_; #aet bearn#, _child_;
#t bn#, _bone_; #t rce#, _kingdom_; #t spere#, _spear_; #t
werod#, _band of men_; #t tungol#, _star_:

  _Sing. N.A._    hof       bearn       bn       rc-e
          _G._    hof-es    bearn-es    bn-es    rc-es
        _D.I._    hof-e     bearn-e     bn-e     rc-e

  _Plur. N.A._    hof-u     bearn       bn       rc-u
          _G._    hof-a     bearn-a     bn-a     rc-a
        _D.I._    hof-um    bearn-um    bn-um    rc-um

  _Sing. N.A._    sper-e     werod       tungol
          _G._    sper-es    werod-es    tungl-es
        _D.I._    sper-e     werod-e     tungl-e

  _Plur. N.A._    sper-u     werod       tungl-u
          _G._    sper-a     werod-a     tungl-a
        _D.I._    sper-um    werod-um    tungl-um


33. The paradigms show (1)that monosyllables with short stems (#hof#)
take -u in the N.A. plural; (2)that monosyllables with long stems
(#bearn#, #bn#) do not distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A.
singular;[1] (3)that dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or
short (#rce#, #spere#), have -u in the N.A. plural; (4)that
dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable
short[2] (#werod#) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from the
N.A. singular; (5)that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having
the first syllable long (#tungol#) more frequently take -u in the N.A.
plural.

  NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in the masculine a-stems. See
  27,(4).

    [Footnote 1: Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in
    the plural. These are either survivals of O.E. long stems,
    _swine_, _sheep_, _deer_, _folk_, or analogical forms, _fish_,
    _trout_, _mackerel_, _salmon_, etc.]

    [Footnote 2: Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are,
    of course, excluded. They follow the declension of their last
    member: #gebed#, _prayer_, #gebedu#, _prayers_; #gefeoht#,
    _battle_, #gefeoht#, _battles_.]


34. Present and Preterit Indicative of #habban#, _to have_:

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic hbbe, _I have_, or _shall have_.[3]
          2.  hfst (hafast), _thou hast_, or _wilt have_.
          3. h, ho, hit hf (hafa),
               _he, she, it has_, or _will have_.

  _Plur._ 1. w habba, _we have_, or _shall have_.
          2. g habba, _ye have_, or _will have_.
          3. he habba, _they have_, or _will have_.

          PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic hfde _I had_.
          2.  hfdest, _thou hadst_.
          3. h, ho, hit hfde, _he, she, it had_.

  _Plur._ 1. w hfdon, _we had_.
          2. g hfdon, _ye had_.
          3. he hfdon, _they had_.

  NOTE.--The negative #ne#, _not_, which always precedes its verb,
  contracts with all the forms of #habban#. The negative loses its
  e, #habban# its h. #Ne# + #habban# = #nabban#; #Ic ne hbbe = Ic
  nbbe#; #Ic ne hfde = Ic nfde#, etc. The negative forms may be
  got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for h.

    [Footnote 3: See  17, Note 1. Note that (as in #hwl#, 27,
    (2))  changes to a when the following syllable contains a:
    #hbbe#, but #hafast#.]


35. VOCABULARY.

  t dl, _dale_.
  t dor, _animal_ [deer[4]].
  t dor, _door_.
  t ft, _vessel_ [vat].
  t fy:r, _fire_.
  t gar, _year_.
  t geoc, _yoke_.
  t geset, _habitation_ [settlement].
  t hafod, _head_.
  t hs, _house_.
  t lc, _body_ [lich-gate].
  t lim, _limb_.
  on (with dat.) _in_.
  t spor, _track_.
  t w:pen, _weapon_.
  t wf, _wife, woman_.
  t wte, _punishment_.
  t word, _word_.

    [Footnote 4: The old meaning survives in Shakespeare's "Rats and
    mice and such small deer," _King Lear_, III, iv, 144.]


36. EXERCISES.

I. 1. H hafa s cyninges bearn. 2.  Walas habba  speru. 3.
wf habba ra secga w:pnu. 4. hfst one fugol ond t hs s
hierdes. 5.Hf[5] ho  fatu[6]? 6.Hfde h s wfes lc on :m
hofe? 7.H nfde s wfes lc; h hfde s dores hafod. 8.Hf s
cyning gesetu on :m dle? 9.S bcere hf  solas on :m hse.
10.G habba frodm.

II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the
house. 3.He had fire in the vessel. 4.Did the woman have (=Had the
woman) the children? 5.The animal has the body of the woman's child.
6. Ishall have the heads of the wolves. 7.He and she have the king's
houses. 8.Have not (=#Nabba#) the children the warrior's weapons?

    [Footnote 5: See  20, (2), (b).]

    [Footnote 6: See  27, (2).]




CHAPTER VIII.

THE -DECLENSION.


37. The -Declension, corresponding to the First or _-_Declension of
Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. Many feminine i-stems and
u-stems soon passed over to this Declension. The -Declension may,
therefore, be considered the _normal declension_ for all strong feminine
nouns.


38. Paradigms of #so giefu#, _gift_; #so wund#, _wound_; #so rd#,
_cross_; #so leornung#, _learning_; #so swol#, _soul_:

    _Sing. N._  gief-u   wund     rd     leornung        swol
          _G._  gief-e   wund-e   rd-e   leornung-a (e)  swl-e
        _D.I._  gief-e   wund-e   rd-e   leornung-a (e)  swl-e
          _A._  gief-e   wund-e   rd-e   leornung-a (e)  swl-e

  _Plur. N.A._  gief-a   wund-a   rd-a   leornung-a      swl-a
          _G._  gief-a   wund-a   rd-a   leornung-a      swl-a
        _D.I._  gief-um  wund-um  rd-um  leornung-um     swl-um


39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#giefu#) take u in the
nominative singular; (2)that monosyllables with long stems (#wund#,
#rd#) present the unchanged stem in the nominative singular; (3)that
dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that abstract nouns
in -ung prefer a to e in the singular.

  NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. See
  27,(4).


40. Present and Preterit Indicative of #bon# (#wesan#) _tobe_:

          PRESENT (first form).    PRESENT         PRETERIT.
                                   (second form).

  _Sing._ 1. Ic eom                1. Ic bom      1.Ic ws
          2.  eart               2.  bist      2.  w:re
          3. h is                 3. h bi       3. h ws

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                 1. w  }        1.w  }
          2. g  } sind(on), sint  2. g  } bo   2. g  } w:ron
          3. he }                 3. he }        3. he }

  NOTE 1.--The forms #bom#, #bist#, etc. are used chiefly as future
  tenses in O.E.They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry.
  Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson's _Promise of May_, uses
  _be_ for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and
  plural; and _there be_ is frequent in Shakespeare for _there are_.
  The Northern dialect employed #aron# as well as #sindon# and
  #sind# for the present plural; hence Mn.E. _are_.

  NOTE 2.--Fusion with #ne# gives #neom#, #neart#, #nis# for the
  present; #ns#, #n:re#, #n:ron# for the preterit.

  NOTE 3.--The verb _to be_ is followed by the nominative case, as
  in Mn.E.; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a
  neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the
  predicate noun. The neuter singular #t# is frequently employed
  in this construction: #aet w:ron eall Finnas#, _They were all
  Fins_; #t sind englas#, _They are angels_; #:t w:ron engla
  gstas#, _They were angels' spirits_.

  Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say _It is I_, _It is thou_,
  but _I it am_, _Thou it art_: #Ic hit eom#, # hit eart#. See
  21, (1), Note1.


41. VOCABULARY.

  so brycg, _bridge_.
  so costnung, _temptation_.
  so cwalu, _death_ [quail, quell].
  so fr, _journey_ [faran].
  so frfor, _consolation, comfort_.
  so geogu, _youth_.
  so glf, _glove_.
  so hlignes[1], _holiness_.
  so heall, _hall_.
  hr, _here_.
  hw, _who_?
  hw:r, _where_?
  so lufu, _love_.
  so mearc, _boundary_ [mark, marches[2]].
  so md, _meed, reward_.
  so mildheortnes, _mild-heartedness, mercy_.
  so stw, _place_ [stow away].
  :r, _there_.
  so earf, _need_.
  so wylf, _she wolf_.

    [Footnote 1: All words ending in -nes double the -s before
    adding the case endings.]

    [Footnote 2: As in _warden of the marches_.]


42. EXERCISES.

I. 1. Hw:r is :re brycge ende? 2. Hr sind ra rca mearca. 3.Hw
hf  glfa? 4.:r bi :m cyninge frfre earf. 5.So wund is on
:re wylfe hafde. 6.W habba costnunga. 7.He n:ron on :re
healle. 8.Ic hit neom. 9.t w:ron Walas. 10.t sind s wfes
bearn.

II. 1. We shall have the women's gloves. 2. Where is the place? 3.He
will be in the hall. 4.Those (#t#) were not the boundaries of the
kingdom. 5.It was not I. 6.Ye are not the king's scribes. 7.The
shepherd's words are full (#full# + gen.) of wisdom and comfort.
8.Where are the bodies of the children? 9.The gifts are not here.
10.Who has the seals and the birds?




CHAPTER IX.

THE i-DECLENSION AND THE u-DECLENSION.


#The _i-_Declension.# (See  58.)

43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of _i-_stems in the
classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (_a_) masculine and (_b_)
feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended originally in -e
(from older i).


(_a_) #Masculine _i-_Stems.#

44. These stems have almost completely gone over to the a-Declension, so
that -as is more common than -e as the N.A. plural ending, whether the
stem is long or short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular.


45. Paradigms of #s wyrm#, _worm_; #s wine#, _friend_.

  _Sing. N.A._  wyrm        win-e
          _G._  wyrm-es     win-es
        _D.I._  wyrm-e      win-e

  _Plur. N.A._  wyrm-as     win-as (e)
          _G._  wyrm-a      win-a
        _D.I._  wyrm-um     win-um


#Names of Peoples.#

46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the N.A. plural are
certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural.


47. Paradigms of # Engle#, _Angles_; # Norymbre#, _Northumbrians_;
# lode#, _people_:

  _Plur. N.A._  Engle     Norymbre     lode
          _G._  Engla     Norymbra     loda
        _D.I._  Englum    Norymbrum    lodum


(_b_) #Feminine _i-_Stems.#

48. The short stems (#frem-u#) conform entirely to the declension of
short -stems; long stems (#cwn#, #wyrt#) differ from long -stems in
having no ending for the A. singular. They show, also, apreference for
-e rather than -a in the N.A. plural.


49. Paradigms of #so frem-u#, _benefit_; #so cwn#, _woman, queen_
[quean]; #so wyrt#, _root_ [wort]:

    _Sing. N._ frem-u     cwn          wyrt
          _G._ frem-e     cwn-e        wyrt-e
        _D.I._ frem-e     cwn-e        wyrt-e
          _A._ frem-e     cwn          wyrt

  _Plur. N.A._ frem-a     cwn-e (a)    wyrt-e (a)
          _G._ frem-a     cwn-a        wyrt-a
        _D.I._ frem-um    cwn-um       wyrt-um


#The _u-_Declension.#

50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of u-stems in the
classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few (_a_)
masculines and (_b_) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns of both genders
(#sun-u#, #dur-u#) retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the
long stems (#feld#, #hond#) drop it. The influence of the masculine
a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the
u-Declension (#feld#, #feld-es#, etc.).

  NOTE.--Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final
  -u: _cf._ N.A. plural #hof-u#, but #bearn#, #bn#; N. singular
  #gief-u#, but #wund#, #rd#; N. singular #frem-u#, but #cwn#,
  #wyrt#; N.A. singular #sun-u#, #dur-u#, but #feld#, #hond#.


(_a_) #Masculine _u-_Stems.#

51. Paradigms of #s sun-u#, _son_; #s feld#, _field_:

  _Sing. N.A._  sun-u     feld
          _G._  sun-a     feld-a (es)
        _D.I._  sun-a     feld-a (e)

  _Plur. N.A._  sun-a     feld-a (as)
          _G._  sun-a     feld-a
        _D.I._  sun-um    feld-um


(b) #Feminine _u-_Stems.#

52. Paradigms of #so dur-u#, _door_; #so hond#, _hand_:

  _Sing. N.A._  dur-u     hond
          _G._  dur-a     hond-a
        _D.I._  dur-a     hond-a

  _Plur. N.A._  dur-a     hond-a
          _G._  dur-a     hond-a
        _D.I._  dur-um    hond-um


53. Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, #h#, #ho#, #hit# = _he_,
_she_, _it_:

            _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
  _Sing. N._  h            ho          hit
        _G._  his           hiere        his
        _D._  him           hiere        him
        _A._  hine, hiene   he          hit

                      _All Genders._
  _Plur. N.A._              he
          _G._              hiera
          _D._              him


54. VOCABULARY.

  (i-STEMS.)

  s cierr, _turn, time_ [char, chare, chore].
  so d:d, _deed_.
  s d:l, _part_ [a great deal].
   Dene, _Danes_.
  s frondscipe, _friendship_.
  so hy:d, _skin, hide_.
   londlode, _natives_.
   Mierce, _Mercians_.
   Rmware, _Romans_.
   Seaxe, _Saxons_.
  s stede, _place_ [in-stead of].

  (u-STEMS.)

  so flr, _floor_.
  so nosu, _nose_.
  s sumor (_G._ sumeres, _D._ sumera), _summer_.
  s winter (_G._ wintres, _D._ wintra), _winter_.
  s wudu, _wood, forest_.

  NOTE.--The numerous masculine nouns ending in -hd,--#cildhd#
  (_childhood_), #wfhd# (_womanhood_),--belong to the u-stems
  historically; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension.


55. EXERCISES.

I. 1.  Seaxe habba s dores hy:d on :m wuda. 2. Hw hf 
giefa? 3. Mierce he[1] habba. 4.Hw:r is s Wales fugol? 5.
Dene hiene habba. 6.Hw:r sindon hiera winas? 7.He sindon on s
cyninges wuda. 8. Rmware ond  Seaxe hfdon  gras ond  geocu.
9.Ho is on :m hse on wintra, ond on :m feldum on sumera.
10.Hw:r is s hofes duru?  11.Ho[2] (=so duru) nis hr.

II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the
Danes. 2.Art thou the king's son? 3.Has she her[3] gifts in her[3]
hands? 4.Here are the fields of the natives. 5.Who had the bird?
6.Ihad it.[2] 7.The child had the worm in his[3] fingers. 8.The
Mercians were here during (the) summer (#on# + dat.).

    [Footnote 1: See  21, (1).]

    [Footnote 2: Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which
    they stand. #Hit#, however, sometimes stands for inanimate
    things of both masculine and feminine genders. See Wlfing
    (_l.c._) I, 238.]

    [Footnote 3: See  76 (last sentence).]




CHAPTER X.

PRESENT INDICATIVE ENDINGS OF STRONG VERBS.


56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by
dropping -an of the infinitive: #feall-an#, _to fall_; #cos-an#, _to
choose_; #bd-an#, _to abide_.


57. The personal endings are:

  _Sing._ 1. -e    _Plur._ 1. }
          2. -est          2. } -a
          3. -e           3. }


#_i-_Umlaut.#

58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not -est and -e, but
-is and -i; and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon
almost every page of Early West Saxon literature. This i, though
unaccented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back influence upon
the vowel of the preceding accented syllable. This influence, aform of
regressive assimilation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced _om-lowt_).
The vowel i or j (=_y_), being itself a palatal, succeeded in
palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded it, and in imposing
still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already
palatal.[1] The changes produced were these:

  a became e (): menn (< *mann-iz), _men_.
      "   :      :nig (< *n-ig), _any_.
  u    "   y      wyllen (< *wull-in), _woollen_.
      "   y:      my:s (< *ms-iz), _mice_.
  o    "   e      dehter (< *dohtr-i), _to_ or _for the daughter_.
      "         ft (< *ft-iz), _feet_.
  ea   "   ie     wiex (< *weax-i), _he grows_ (weaxan = _to grow_).
  a   "   e     hew (< *haw-i), _he hews_ (hawan = to _hew_).
  eo   "   ie     wiercan (< *weorc-jan), _to work_.
  o   "   e     lehtan (< *loht-jan), _to light_.

    [Footnote 1: The _palatal_ vowels and diphthongs were long or
    short , e, i, (ie), y, ea, eo; the _guttural_ vowels were long
    or short a, o, u.]


#The Unchanged Present Indicative.#

59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect
of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined
to the present stem without modification either of the stem itself or of
the personal endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the
present indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for.

In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are
comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular:

  _Sing._ 1. Ic feall-e      cos-e          bd-e
               (_I fall_)      (_I choose_)    (_Iabide_)
          2.  feall-est    cos-est        bd-est
          3. h feall-e     cos-e         bd-e

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } feall-a  cos-a         bd-a
          3. he }


#The Present Indicative with i-Umlaut and Contraction.#

60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distinguished from the other
forms of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by (1)i-umlaut of
the vowel of the stem, (2)syncope of the vowel of the ending, giving
-st and - for -est and -e, and (3)contraction of -st and - with the
final consonant or consonants of the stem.


#Contraction.#

61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed. By
these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative
of such verbs as (1)#stondan# (=#standan#), _to stand_, (2)#cuman#,
_to come_, (3)#grwan#, _to grow_, (4)#brcan#, _to enjoy_,
(5)#blwan#, _to blow_, (6)#feallan#, _to fall_, (7)#hawan#, _to
hew_, (8)#weorpan#, _to throw_, and (9)#cosan#, _to choose_, become
respectively (1)#stend-#,[2] (2)#cym-#, (3)#grw-#, (4)#bry:c-#,
(5)#bl:w-#, (6)#fiell-#, (7)#hew-#, (8)#wierp-#, and (9)#ces-#.

If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is changed in the 2d
and 3d singular to i (ie): #cwean# _to say_, stem #cwi-#; #beran# _to
bear_, stem #bier-#. But this mutation[3] had taken place long before
the period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in general. It
is best, however, to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes
due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d and 3d singular
stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms
proper.

If, now, the syncopated endings -st and - are added directly to the
umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a massing of consonants
as almost to defy pronunciation: #cwi-st#, _thou sayest_; #stend-st#,
_thou standest_, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded
for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye will, by a little practice,
become a sure guide in these contractions. The following rules, however,
must be observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular of the
present indicative:

(1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is
dropped:

  1. feall-e (_I fall_)  1. winn-e (_I fight_)  1. swimm-e (_Iswim_)
  2. fiel-st             2. win-st              2. swim-st
  3. fiel-              3. win-               3. swim-

(2) If the stem ends in -, this is dropped:

  1. cwe-e (_I say_)  1. weor-e (_I become_)
  2. cwi-st            2. wier-st
  3. cwi-             3. wier-

(3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. The - of the ending
is then also changed to -t, and usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the
2d singular serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular:

  1. stond-e (= stand-e) (_I stand_)  1. bind-e (_I bind_)
  2. stent-st                         2. bint-st
  3. stent                            3. bint

  1. bd-e (_I abide_)                1. rd-e (_I ride_)
  2. bt-st                           2. rt-st
  3. bt (-t)                         3. rt (-t)

(4) If the stem ends already in -t, the endings are added as in (3), -
being again changed to -t and absorbed:

  1. brot-e (_I break_)  1. feoht-e (_I fight_)  1. bt-e (_Ibite_)
  2. bret-st             2. fieht-st             2. bt-st
  3. bret (-t)           3. fieht                3. bt (-t)

(5) If the stem ends in -s, this is dropped before -st (toavoid -sst),
but is retained before -, the latter being changed to -t. Thus the 2d
and 3d singulars are identical:[4]

  1. cos-e (_I choose_)  1. rs-e (_I rise_)
  2. ce-st               2. r-st
  3. ces-t               3. rs-t

    [Footnote 2: The more common form for stems with a is  rather
    than e: #faran#, _to go_, 2d and 3d singular stem #fr-#;
    #sacan#, _to contend_, stem #sc-#. Indeed, a changes to e _via_
     (Cosijn, _Altwestschsische Grammatik_, I, 32).]

    [Footnote 3: Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is
    still another name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony
    has the advantage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It
    was proposed by Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of
    English and German_, Paris, 1894), but has not been
    naturalized.]

    [Footnote 4: This happens also when the infinitive stem ends
    in #st#:

      1. berst-e (_I burst_)
      2. bier-st
      3. bierst.]


62. EXERCISES.

I. 1. S cyning fiel. 2.  wf cosa  giefa. 3.  stentst on :m
hse. 4.H wierp t w:pen. 5.S secg hew  lc. 6.t s:d
grw ond wiex (_Mark_ iv.27). 7.Ic stonde hr, ond  stentst :r.
8. "Ic hit eom," cwi h. 9.He bera s wulfes bn. 10.H he bint,
ond ic hine binde. 11.Ne rtst?

II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child's gifts? 3. "He was
not here," says she. 4.Wilt thou remain in the hall? 5.The wolves are
biting (=bite) the fishermen. 6.He enjoys[5] the love of his children.
7.Do you enjoy (=Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the
scribe? 8.Will he come? 9. Ishall throw the spear, and thou wilt bear
the weapons. 10.The king's son will become king. 11.The army (#werod#)
is breaking the doors and walls of the house.

    [Footnote 5: #Brcan#, _to enjoy_, usually takes the genitive
    case, not the accusative. It means "to have joy of any thing."]




CHAPTER XI.

THE CONSONANT DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS.


#The Weak or _n-_Declension.#

63. The n-Declension contains almost all of the O.E. nouns belonging to
the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic n has been preserved
in the oblique cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing
n-stems from the preceding vowel stems.

The n-Declension includes (_a_) masculines, (_b_) feminines, and (_c_)
neuters. The masculines far outnumber the feminines, and the neuters
contain only #age#, _eye_ and #are#, _ear_. The masculines end in -a,
the feminines and neuters in -e.


64. Paradigms of (_a_) #s hunta#, _hunter_; (_b_) #so tunge#,
_tongue_; (_c_) #t age#, _eye_:

    _Sing. N._  hunt-a      tung-e      ag-e
      _G.D.I._  hunt-an     tung-an     ag-an
          _A._  hunt-an     tung-an     ag-e

  _Plur. N.A._  hunt-an     tung-an     ag-an
          _G._  hunt-ena    tung-ena    ag-ena
        _D.I._  hunt-um     tung-um     ag-um


65. VOCABULARY.

  s adesa, _hatchet, adze_.
  s :metta, _leisure_ [empt-iness].
  s bona (bana), _murderer_ [bane].
  so cirice, _church_ [Scotch kirk].
  s cnapa (later, #cnafa#), _boy_ [knave].
  s cuma, _stranger_ [comer].
  t are, _ear_.
  so eore, _earth_.
  s gefra, _companion_ [co-farer].
  s guma, _man_ [bride-groom[1]].
  so heorte, _heart_.
  s mna, _moon_.
  so n:dre, _adder_ [a nadder > an adder[2]].
  s oxa, _ox_.
  s scowyrhta, _shoe-maker_ [shoe-wright].
  so sunne, _sun_.
  s tona, _injury_ [teen].
  biddan (with dat. of person and gen. of thing[3]), _to request, ask
for_.
  cwelan, _to die_ [quail].
  gescieppan, _to create_ [shape, land-scape, friend-ship].
  giefan (with dat. of indirect object), _to give_.
  healdan, _to hold_.
  helpan (with dat.), _to help_.
  scean[4] (with dat.), _to injure_ [scathe].
  wistondan (-standan) (with dat.), _to withstand_.
  wrtan, _to write_.

    [Footnote 1: The _r_ is intrusive in _-groom_, as it is in
    _cart-r-idge_, _part-r-idge_, _vag-r-ant_, and _hoa-r-se_.]

    [Footnote 2: The _n_ has been appropriated by the article. Cf.
    _an apron_ (< _a napron_), _an auger_ (< _a nauger_), _an
    orange_ (< _a norange_), _an umpire_ (< _a numpire_).]

    [Footnote 3: In Mn.E. we say "I request a favor of you"; but in
    O.E. it was "Irequest you (dative) of a favor" (genitive). Cf.
    _Cymbeline_, III, vi, 92: "We'll mannerly demand thee of thy
    story." See Franz's _Shakespeare-Grammatik_, 361 (1900).]

    [Footnote 4: #Scean# is conjugated through the present
    indicative like #fremman#. See 129.]


66. EXERCISES.

I. 1. S scowyrhta bry:c his :mettan. 2.  guman bidda :m cnapan
s adesan. 3.Hw is s cuma? 4.Hielpst  :m bonan? 5.Ic him ne
helpe. 6. bearn scea s bonan agum ond arum. 7.S cuma cwiel
on :re cirican. 8.S hunta wistent :m wulfum. 9. oxan bera s
cnapan gefran. 10.S mna ond  tunglu sind on :m heofonum. 11.
huntan healda :re n:dran tungan. 12.H hiere gief  giefa. 13.
werod scea s cyninges feldum.

II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the
gifts? 3.Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4.The boy's
companion is dying. 5.His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6.The
adder's tongue injures the king's companion. 7.The sun is the day's
eye. 8.She asks the strangers for the spears. 9.The men's bodies are
not here. 10.Is he not (#Nish#) the child's murderer? 11.Who creates
the bodies and the souls of men? 12.Thou withstandest her. 13.He is
not writing.




CHAPTER XII.


#Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions.#

67. The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their
stem ended in a consonant other than n. The most important of them may
be divided as follows: (1)The _foot_ Declension, (2)r-Stems, and
(3)nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized by the prevalence,
wherever possible, of i-umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being
then dropped.


68. (1) The nouns belonging to the _foot_ Declension exhibit umlaut most
consistently in the N.A. plural.

  _Sing. N.A._  s ft     s mon    s t      so c
  _Sing. N.A._   (_foot_)   (_man_)   (_tooth_)    (_cow_)
  _Plur. N.A._  ft        men       t         cy:

  NOTE.--The dative singular usually has the same form as the N.A.
  plural. Here belong also #so bc# (_book_), #so burg#
  (_borough_), #so gs# (_goose_), #so ls# (_louse_), and #so
  ms# (_mouse_), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only
  six of the _foot_ Declension plurals: _feet_, _men_, _teeth_,
  _geese_, _lice_, and _mice_. The _c_ in the last two is an
  artificial spelling, intended to preserve the sound of voiceless
  _s_. Mn.E. _kine_ (= _cy-en_) is a double plural formed after the
  analogy of weak stems; Burns in _The Twa Dogs_ uses _kye_.

  No umlaut is possible in #so niht# (_night_) and #s mna#
  (_month_), plural #niht# and #mna# (preserved in Mn.E.
  _twelvemonth_ and _fortnight_).

(2) The r-Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit umlaut of
the dative singular.

  _Sing. N.A._  s fder     s bror    so mdor
                 (_father_)   (_brother_)   (_mother_)
          _D._     fder        brer        mder

  _Sing. N.A._  so dohtor (_daughter_)  so swuster (_sister_)
          _D._      dehter                   swyster

  NOTE.--The N.A. plural is usually the same as the N.A. singular.
  These umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i.
  Cf. Lat. dative singular _patri_, _frtri_, _mtri_, _sorori_
  (< _*sosori_), and Greek +thugatri+.

(3) The nd-Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in the dative
singular:

  _Sing. N.A._  s frond (_friend_)  s fond (_enemy_)
          _D._     frend                fend

  _Plur. N.A._     frend             fend

  NOTE.--Mn.E. _friend_ and _fiend_ are interesting analogical
  spellings. When s had been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals
  #frend# and #fend#, thus giving the double plurals _friends_ and
  _fiends_, a second singular was formed by dropping the s. Thus
  _friend_ and _fiend_ displaced the old singulars _frend_ and
  _fend_, both of which occur in the M.E. _Ormulum_, written about
  the year 1200.


#Summary of O.E. Declensions.#

69. A brief, working summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now
be made on the basis of gender.

All O.E. nouns are (1)masculine, (2)feminine, or (3)neuter.

(1) The masculines follow the declension of #m# ( 26), except those
ending in -a, which are declined like #hunta# (64):

  _Sing. N.A._  m        _N._  hunta
          _G._  mes  _G.D.A._  huntan
        _D.I._  me       _I._  huntan

  _Plur. N.A._  mas          huntan
          _G._  ma           huntena
        _D.I._  mum          huntum

(2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of #hof# (32); the
long-stemmed, that of #bearn# (32):

  _Sing. N.A._  hof      bearn
          _G._  hofes    bearnes
        _D.I._  hofe     bearne

  _Plur. N.A._  hofu     bearn
          _G._  hofa     bearna
        _D.I._  hofum    bearnum

(3) The feminines follow the declensions of #giefu# and #wund# (38)
(the only difference being in the N. singular), except those ending in
-e, which follow the declension of #tunge# (64):

    _Sing. N._  giefu     wund      tunge
          _G._  giefe     wunde     tungan
        _D.I._  giefe     wunde     tungan
          _A._  giefe     wunde     tungan

  _Plur. N.A._  giefa     wunda     tungan
          _G._  giefa     wunda     tungena
        _D.I._  giefum    wundum    tungum


70. VOCABULARY.

  ac, _but_.
  btan (with dat.), _except, but, without_.
  s Crst, _Christ_.
  s eorl, _earl, alderman, warrior_.
  t Englalond, _England_ [Angles' land].
  faran, _to go_ [fare].
  findan, _to find_.
  s God, _God_.
  htan, _to call, name_.
  s hlford, _lord_ [#hlf-weard#].
  mid (with dat.), _with_.
  on (with acc.), _on, against, into_.
  t (with dat.), _to_.
  uton (with infin.), _let us_.

  NOTE.--O.E. #mon# (#man#) is frequently used in an indefinite sense
  for _one_, _people_, _they_. It thus takes the place of a passive
  construction proper: #And man nam  gebrotu e r belifon, twelf
  cy:pan fulle#, _And there were taken up of fragments that remained
  there twelve baskets full_; but more literally, _And one_ (or
  _they_) _took the fragments_, etc.; #Ond Hstenes wf ond hs suna
  twgen mon brhte t :m cyninge#, _And Hsten's wife and his two
  sons were brought to the king_.


71. EXERCISES.

I. 1. Mn hine h:t lfred. 2. Uton faran on t scip. 3. God is cyninga
cyning ond hlforda hlford. 4.S eorl ne gief giefa his fend. 5.Ic
ns mid his frend. 6.So mdor fr mid hiere dehter on  burg.
7.Fintst  s bceres bc? 8.H bint ealle (all)  dor btan :m
wulfum. 9. eart Crst, Godes sunu. 10. "Uton bindan s bonan ft,"
cwih.

II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Cdmon. 3. He throws
his spear against the door. 4.Thou art not the earl's brother. 5.He
will go with his father to England, but I shall remain (abide) here.
6.Gifts are not given to murderers. 7.Who will find the tracks of the
animals? 8.They ask their lord for his weapons (65, Note3).




CHAPTER XIII.

PRONOUNS.


(1) #Personal Pronouns.#

72. Paradigms of #ic#, _I_; ##, _thou_. For #h#, #ho#, #hit#, see
53.

  _Sing. N._  ic                          
        _G._  mn                         n
        _D._  m                          
        _A._  m (mec)                     (ec)

   _Dual N._  wit (_we two_)              git (_yetwo_)
        _G._  uncer (_of us two_)         incer (_ofyou two_)
        _D._  unc (_to_ or _for us two_)  inc (_to_ or _for you two_)
        _A._  unc (_us two_)              inc (_you two_)

  _Plur. N._  w                          g
        _G._  ser (re)                  ower
        _D._  s                          ow
        _A._  s (sic)                   ow (owic)

  NOTE 1.--The dual number was soon absorbed by the plural. No relic
  of it now remains. But when two and only two are referred to, the
  dual is consistently used in O.E.An example occurs in the case of
  the two blind men (_Matthew_ ix. 27-31): #Gemiltsa unc, Davdes
  sunu!# _Pity us, (thou) Son of David!_ #Se inc fter incrum
  gelafan#, _Be it unto you according to your faith._

  NOTE 2.--Mn.E. _ye_ (< g), the nominative proper, is fast being
  displaced by _you_ (< #ow#), the old objective. The distinction
  is preserved in the King James's version of the Bible: _Ye in me,
  and I in you_ (_John_ xiv.20); but not in Shakespeare and later
  writers.


(2) #Demonstrative Pronouns.#

73. Paradigm of #s#, #os#, #is#, _this_. For the Definite Article
as a demonstrative, meaning _that_, see 28, Note3.

               _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
    _Sing. N._  s           os         is
          _G._  isses        isse        isses
          _D._  issum        isse        issum
          _A._  isne         s          is
          _I._  y:s           ----         y:s

                             _All Genders._
  _Plur. N.A._                s
          _G._                issa
          _D._                issum


(3) #The Interrogative Pronoun.#

74. Paradigm of #hw#, #hwt#, _who_, _what?_

             _Masculine._  _Neuter._
  _Sing. N._  hw           hwt
        _G._  hws          hws
        _D._  hw:m          hw:m
        _A._  hwone         hwt
        _I._  ----          hwy:

  NOTE 1.--The derivative interrogatives, #hwer# (< #*hw-er#),
  _which of two?_ and #hwilc# (< #*hw-lc#), _which?_ are declined
  as strong adjectives (79-82).

  NOTE 2.--The instrumental case of #hw# survives in Mn.E. _why_ =
  _on what account_; the instrumental of the definite article is
  seen in the adverbial _the: The sooner, the better = by how much
  sooner, by so much better._

  NOTE 3.--How were the Mn.E. relative pronouns, _who_ and _which_,
  evolved from the O.E. interrogatives? The change began in early
  West Saxon with #hwt# used in indirect questions (Wlfing, _l.c._
  310,[beta]): #N ic wt eall hwt  woldest#, _Now I know all
  that thou desiredst_. The direct question was, #Hwt woldest ?# But
  the presence of #eall# shows that in Alfred's mind #hwt# was, in
  the indirect form, more relative than interrogative.


(4) #Relative Pronouns.#

75. O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used instead (1)the
Indeclinable Particle #e#, _who_, _whom_, _which_, _that_, (2)the
Definite Article (28), (3)the Definite Article with the Indeclinable
Particle, (4)the Indeclinable Particle with a Personal Pronoun.

The Definite Article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent.
The case depends upon the construction. _The bird which I have_ may,
therefore,be:--

  (1) #S fugol e ic hbbe#;
  (2) #S fugol one ic hbbe#;
  (3) #S fugol one e# (= _the which_) #ic hbbe#;
  (4) #S fugol e hine ic hbbe#.

  NOTE.--O.E. #e# agrees closely in construction with Mn.E.
  relative _that_: (1)Both are indeclinable. (2)Both refer to
  animate or inanimate objects. (3)Both may be used with phrasal
  value: #y: ylcan dge e h hine t :m de beran wylla#, _On the
  same day that_ (= _on which_) _they intend to bear him to the
  funeral pile_. (4)Neither can be preceded by a preposition.


(5) #Possessive Pronouns.#

76. The Possessive Pronouns are #mn#, _mine_; #n#, _thine_; #re#,
_our_; #ower#, _your_; [#sn#, _his_, _her_, _its_]; #uncer#,
_belonging to us two_; #incer#, _belonging to you two_. They are
declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the Third Personal
Pronoun, #his#, _his_, #hiere#, _her_, #hiera#, _their_, are
indeclinable.


(6) #Indefinite Pronouns.#

77. These are #:lc#, _each_, _every_; #n#, _a_, _an_, _one_; #:nig#
(< #n-ig#), _any_; #n:nig# (< #ne-:nig#), _none_; #er#, _other_;
#sum#, _one_, _a certain one_; #swilc#, _such_. They are declined as
strong adjectives.

  NOTE.--O.E. had three established methods of converting an
  interrogative pronoun into an indefinite: (1)By prefixing #ge#,
  (2) by prefixing #:g#, (3)by interposing the interrogative
  between #sw ... sw#: (1)#gehw#, _each_; #gehwer#, _either_;
  #gehwilc#, _each_; (2)#:ghw#, _each_; #:ghwer#, _each_;
  #:ghwilc#, _each_; (3)#sw hw sw#, _whosoever_; #sw hwer
  sw#, _whichsoever of two_; #sw hwilc sw#, _whosoever_.




CHAPTER XIV.

ADJECTIVES, STRONG AND WEAK.


78. The declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension
of nouns, though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain
cases. Adjectives belong either to (1)the Strong Declension or to
(2)the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is employed when the
adjective is preceded by #s# or #s#, _the_, _that_, or _this_;
otherwise, the Strong Declension is employed: # gdan cyningas#, _the
good kings_; #s gda cyning#, _this good king_; but #gde cyningas#,
_good kings_.

  NOTE.--The Weak Declension is also frequently used when the
  adjective is employed in direct address, or preceded by a
  possessive pronoun: #Dryhten, lmihtiga God ... ic bidde  for
  nre miclan mildheortnesse#, _Lord, almighty God, Ipray thee,
  for thy great mercy_.


(1) #Strong Declension of Adjectives.#

(a) _Monosyllables._

79. The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems:
#gd#, _good_; #eald#, _old_; #long#, _long_; #swift#, _swift_. They are
declined as follows.


80. Paradigm of #gd#, _good_:

               _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._

    _Sing. N._  gd           gd          gd
          _G._  gdes         gdre        gdes
          _D._  gdum         gdre        gdum
          _A._  gdne         gde         gd
          _I._  gde          ----         gde

  _Plur. N.A._  gde          gda         gd
          _G._  gdra         gdra        gdra
        _D.I._  gdum         gdum        gdum


81. If the stem is short, -u is retained as in #giefu# (39, (1)) and
#hofu# (33, (1)). Thus #gld# (27, Note1), _glad_, and #til#,
_useful_, are inflected:

                _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
    _Sing. N._ { gld          gladu        gld
               { til           tilu         til

  _Plur. N.A._ { glade         glada        gladu
               { tile          tila         tilu


(b) _Polysyllables._

82. Polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables. The most
common terminations are #-en#, _-en_; #-fst#, _-fast_; #-full#, _-ful_;
#-las#, _-less_; #-lc#, _-ly_; #-ig#, _-y_: #h:-en# (#h:# =
_heath_), _heathen_; #stede-fst# (#stede# = _place_), _steadfast_;
#sorg-full# (#sorg# = _sorrow_), _sorrowful_; #cyst-las# (#cyst# =
_worth_), _worthless_; #eor-lc# (#eore# = _earth_), _earthly_;
#bld-ig# (#bld# = _blood_), _bloody_. The present and past
participles, when inflected and not as weak adjectives, may be classed
with the polysyllabic adjectives, their inflection being the same.

Syncopation occurs as in a-stems ( 27, (4)). Thus #hlig#, _holy_,
#ble#, _blithe_, #berende#, _bearing_, #geboren#, _born_, are thus
inflected:

                _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
    _Sing. N._ { hlig         hlgu        hlig
               { ble         blu        ble
               { berende       berendu      berende
               { geboren       geborenu     geboren

  _Plur. N.A._ { hlge         hlga        hlgu
               { ble         bla        blu
               { berende       berenda      berendu
               { geborene      geborena     geborenu


(2) #Weak Declension of Adjectives.#

83. The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether monosyllabic or
polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak Declension of nouns, except
that -ena of the genitive plural is usually replaced by -ra of the
strong adjectives.


                _Masculine._  _Feminine._  _Neuter._
84.  _Sing. N._  gda          gde         gde
           _G._  gdan         gdan        gdan
         _D.I._  gdan         gdan        gdan
           _A._  gdan         gdan        gde

                          _All Genders._
                 _Plur. N.A._  gdan
                         _G._  gdra (gdena)
                       _D.I._  gdum


85. RULE OF SYNTAX.

_Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case; but
participles, when used predicatively, may remain uninflected_ (139,
140).


86. VOCABULARY.

  dad, _dead_.
  eall, _all_.
  hl,[1] _whole, hale_.
  heard, _hard_.
  t hors, _horse_.
  lof, _dear_ [as lief].
  ly:tel, _little_.
  micel, _great, large_.
  monig, _many_.
  niman, _to take_ [nimble, numb].
  nwe, _new_.
  rce, _rich, powerful_.
  s, _true_ [sooth-sayer].
  stlwiere,[2] _serviceable_ [stalwart].
  swe, _very_.
  s tn, _town, village_.
  s egn, _servant, thane, warrior_.
  t ing, _thing_.
  s weg, _way_.
  ws, _wise_.
  wi (with acc.), _against_, in a hostile sense [with-stand].
  s ilca, _the same_ [of that ilk].

    [Footnote 1: #Hlig#, _holy_, contains, of course, the same
    root. "Ifind," says Carlyle, "that you could not get any better
    definition of what 'holy' really is than 'healthy--completely
    healthy.'"]

    [Footnote 2: This word has been much discussed. The older
    etymologists explained it as meaning _worth stealing_. A more
    improbable conjecture is that it means _worth a stall_ or
    _place_. It is used of ships in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_. As
    applied to men, Skeat thinks it meant _good_ or _worthy at
    stealing_; but the etymology is still unsettled.]


87. EXERCISES.

I. 1. s scipu ne sind swe swift, ac he sind swe stlwieru.
2.So gde cwn gief :lcum egne moniga giefa. 3.s wsa cyning
hf monige micele tnas on his rce. 4.N:nig mon is ws on eallum
ingum. 5.y: ilcan dge (98, (2)) mon fond (found) one egn e
mnes wines bc hfde. 6.Ealle  secgas  e swift hors habba rda
wi one bonan. 7.ne fend sind mne frend. 8.S micela stn one
e ic on mnum hondum hbbe is swe heard. 9.He scea :m ealdum
horsum. 10.Uton niman s tilan giefa ond he beran t rum lofum
bearnum.

II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very
dear to the servants (dat. without #t#)? 3.Gifts are not given (70,
Note1) to rich men. 4.All the horses that are in the king's fields are
swift. 5.These stones are very large and hard. 6.He takes the dead
man's spear and fights against the large army. 7.This new house has
many doors. 8.My ways are not your ways. 9.Whosoever chooses me, him I
also (#ac#) choose. 10.Every man has many friends that are not wise.




CHAPTER XV.

NUMERALS.


88. Numerals are either (_a_) Cardinal, expressing pure number, _one_,
_two_, _three_; or (_b_) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession,
_first_, _second_, _third_.


(_a_) #Cardinals.#

89. The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups:

  GROUP I.

  1. n
  2. twgen [twain]
  3. re

These numerals are inflected adjectives. #n#, _one_, _an_, _a_, being a
long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like #gd# (80). The weak form,
#na#, means _alone_.

#Twgen# and #re#, which have no singular, are thus declined:

                _Masc._  _Fem._  _Neut._     _Masc._  _Fem._  _Neut._
  _Plur. N.A._   twgen   tw     tw (t)    re    ro    ro
          _G._   twgra   twgra  twgra      rora  rora  rora
          _D._ { tw:m     tw:m    tw:m        rm    rm    rm
               { (twm)   (twm)  (twm)


90. GROUP II.

   4. fower
   5. ff
   6. siex
   7. seofon
   8. eahta
   9. nigon
  10. ten
  11. endlefan
  12. twelf
  13. rotene
  14. fowertene
  15. fftene
  16. siextene
  17. seofontene
  18. eahtatene
  19. nigontene

These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: #on gewitscipe
rora oe fower bisceopa#, _on testimony of three or four bishops_;
#on siex dagum#, _in six days_; #n n:dre e hfde nigon hafdu#, _a
serpent which had nine heads_; #eling eahtatene wintra#, _a prince of
eighteen winters_.


91. GROUP III.

    20. twntig
    21. n ond twntig
    30. rtig
    40. fowertig
    50. fftig
    60. siextig
    70. hundseofontig
    80. hundeahtatig
    90. hundnigontig
   100. hund
   200. tw hund
  1000. send
  2000. tw send

All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are
followed by the genitive plural: #Nfde h ah m onne twntig
hry:era, and twntig scapa, and twntig swy:na#, _He did not have,
however, more than twenty (of) cattle, and twenty (of) sheep, and twenty
(of) swine_; #He hfdon hundeahtatig scipa#, _They had eighty ships_;
#tw hund mla brd#, _two hundred miles broad_; #:r w:ron seofon
hund gfanena genumen#, _there were seven hundred standards captured_;
#n send monna#, _a thousand men_; #Hannibales folces ws tw send
ofslagen#, _Of Hannibal's men there were two thousand slain_; #He
curon endlefan send monna#, _They chose eleven thousand men_.

  NOTE 1.--Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only
  inflectional endings that are added are (1)-es, a genitive
  singular termination for the numerals in #-tig#, and (2)-e, a
  dative singular for #hund#. (1)The first is confined to
  adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as, #eald#, _old_;
  #brd#, _broad_; #hah#, _high_; and #long#, _long_: #t is
  rtiges mla long#, _that is thirty miles long_; #H ws rtiges
  gara eald#, _He was thirty years old_. (2)The second is employed
  after #mid#: #mid tw:m hunde scipa#, _with two hundred ships_;
  #mid rm hunde monna#, _with three hundred men_; #:r wear ...
  Regulus gefangen mid V hunde monna#, _There was Regulus captured
  with five hundred men_.

  The statement made in nearly all the grammars that #hunde# occurs
  as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation.

  NOTE 2.--Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the
  genitive plural with the indefinite pronoun #sum#, which then
  means _one of_ a certain number. In this peculiar construction,
  the numeral always precedes #sum#: #fowera sum#, _one of four_ (=
  _with three others_); #H s:de t h syxa sum ofslge syxtig#,
  _He said that he, with five others, slew sixty_ (_whales_); #H
  ws fowertigra sum#, _He was one of forty_.

  NOTE 3.--These are the most common constructions with the
  Cardinals. The forms in #-tig# have only recently been
  investigated. Astudy of Wlfing's citations shows that Alfred
  occasionally uses the forms in #-tig# (1)as adjectives with
  plural inflections: #mid XXXgum cyningum#, _with thirty kings_;
  and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: #fter siextigum daga#,
  _after sixty days_. But both constructions are rare.


(b) #Ordinals.#

92. The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals.
They are:

   1. forma, :resta, fyrsta
   2. er, fterra
   3. ridda
   4. fora
   5. ffta
   6. siexta
   7. seofoa
   8. eahtoa
   9. nigoa
  10. toa
  11. endlefta
  12. twelfta
  13. rotoa
  14. fowertoa
  15. fftoa
        etc.
  20. twntigoa
  21. n ond twntigoa
  30. rtigoa
        etc.

  NOTE.--There are no Ordinals corresponding to #hund# and #send#.

With the exception of #er# ( 77), all the Ordinals are declined as
Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently
omitted: #Brtus ws s forma consul#, _Brutus was the first consul_;
#Hr enda so :reste bc, ond onginne so er#, _Here the first book
ends, and the second begins_; #y: fftan dge#, _on the fifth day_; #on
:m toan gare hiera gewinnes#, _in the tenth year of their strife_;
#Ho ws twelfte#, _She was twelfth_; #S ws fora from Agusto#, _He
was fourth from Augustus_.




CHAPTER XVI.

ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS.


#Adverbs.#

93. (1) Adverbs are formed by adding -e or #-lce# to the corresponding
adjectives: #s#, _true_; #se# or #slce#, _truly_; #earmlc#,
_wretched_; #earmlce#, _wretchedly_; #wd#, _wide_; #wde#, _widely_;
#micel#, _great_; #micle# (#micele#), _greatly, much_.

(2) The terminations -e and #-lce# are replaced in some adverbs
by #-(l)unga# or #-(l)inga#: #eallunga#, _entirely_; #f:ringa#,
_suddenly_; #grundlunga#, _from the ground, completely_.

  NOTE 1.--In Mn.E. _headlong_, _darkling_, and _groveling_,
  originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings.

(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: #seweardes#,
_southwards_; #ealles#, _altogether, entirely_; #dges#, _by day_;
#nihtes#, _by night_; #s#, _from that time, afterwards_. _Cf._ #hys#
(=#his#) #weges# in #onne rde :lc hys weges#, _Then rides each his
way_.

  NOTE 2.--The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E.
  _Always_, _crossways_, _sideways_, _needs_ (= _necessarily_),
  _sometimes_, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars.
  The same construction is seen in _of course_, _of a truth_, _of an
  evening_, _of old_, _of late_, and similar phrases.

(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: #hwlum#,
_at times, sometimes_ [whilom]; #stundum# (#stund# = _period_), _from
time to time_; #miclum#, _greatly_. Especially common is the suffix
#-m:lum# (#m:l# = _time_, #measure# [meal]), preserved adverbially in
Mn.E. _piecemeal_: #dropm:lum#, _drop by drop_; #styccem:lum#
(#stycce# = _piece_), _piecemeal, here and there_.

(5) The suffix -an usually denotes motion from:

  hr, _here_.      hider, _hither_.      heonan, _hence_.
  :r, _there_.     ider, _thither_.     onan, _thence_.
  hw:r, _where?_    hwider, _whither?_    hwonan, _whence?_
                                          noran, _from the north_.
                                          astan, _from the east_.
                                          hindan, _from behind_.
                                          feorran, _from far_.
                                          tan, _from without_.

(6) The adverb #rihte# (#riht# = _right, straight_) denotes _motion
toward_ in #norrihte#, _northward, due north_; #astrihte#, _due east_;
#srihte#, _due south_; #westrihte#, _due west_.


#Prepositions.#

94. The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a
preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most
frequently with prepositions.

(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are:

  fter, _after_.
  :t, _at_.
  be (b), _by, near, about_.
  betwonan (betuh), _between_.
  btan (bton), _except_.
  for, _for_.
  from (fram), _from, by_.
  mid, _with_.
  of, _of, from_.
  t, _to_.
  tforan, _before_.
  tweard, _toward_.

(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:

  geond, _throughout_ [be-yond].
  ofer, _over, upon_.
  o, _until, up to_.
  urh, _through_.
  ymbe, _about, around_ [um-while, ember-days].

(3) The preposition #on# (rarely #in#), meaning _into_, is usually
followed by the accusative; but meaning _in_, _on_, or _during_, it
takes the dative or instrumental. The preposition #wi#, meaning
_toward_, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but
meaning _against_, and implying _motion_ or _hostility_, the accusative
is more common.

(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative:

  be noran, _north of_.
  be astan, _east of_.
  be san, _south of._
  be westan, _west of_.
  t acan, _in addition to_.
  on emnlange (efn-lang = _evenly long_), _along_.
  t emnes, _along_.

(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they
introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in
front of the verb: #And him ws mycel menegu t gegaderod#, _And there
was gathered unto him a great multitude_. In relative clauses introduced
by #e#, the preceding position is very common: #so scr ... e h on
bde#, _the district, ... which he dwelt in_ (=_which he in-habited_);
#H ws swy:e spdig man on :m :htum e hiera spda on bo#, _He
was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in_;
#ny:hst :m tne e s dada man on l#, _nearest the town that the
dead man liesin_.


#Conjunctions.#

95. (1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:

  #ac, _but_.
  :r, _before, ere_.
  btan (bton), _except that, unless_.
  ac, _also_ [eke].
  for :m,    }
  for :m e, }  _because_.
  for on,    }
  for on e, }
  for y:, _therefore_.
  gif, _if_.
  hwer, _whether_.
  ond (and), _and_.
  oe, _or_.
  t, _that, so that_.
  ah, _though, however_.

(2) The correlative conjunctions are:

  :ger ge ... ge,      _both ...... and_.
  :ger ...... er }   _either .... or_.
  oe ....... oe }
  n ......... n,      _neither ... nor_.
  sam ........ sam,     _whether ... or_.
  sw ........ sw    { _the ....... the_.
                      { _as ........ as_.
   .........     }  _when ...... then_.
  onne ...... onne }




CHAPTER XVII.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.


#Adjectives#.

96. (1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding -ra for the
comparative, and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative:

  _Positive._       _Comparative._     _Superlative._
  earm, _poor_      earmra             earmost
  rce, _rich_      rcra              rcost
  sml, _narrow_    smlra             smalost
  brd, _broad_     brdra (br:dra)    brdost
  swift, _swift_    swiftra            swiftost

(2) Forms with i-umlaut usually have superlative in -est:

  _Positive._         _Comparative._  _Superlative._
  eald, _old_         ieldra          ieldest
  long, _long_        lengra          lengest
  strong, _strong_    strengra        strengest
  geong, _young_      giengra         giengest
  hah, _high_        herra          hehst

(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly:

  _Positive._               _Comparative._  _Superlative._
  gd, _good_               betra           betst
  ly:tel, _little, small_    l:ssa           l:st
  micel, _great, much_      mra            m:st
  yfel, _bad_               wiersa          wierst

(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb:

  _Positive._     _Comparative._    _Superlative._
  feor, _far_     fierra            fierrest
  nah, _near_    narra            nehst
  :r, _before_    :rra, _former_    :rest, _first_

(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives,
when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used
predicatively they are frequently strong: #s l:sta d:l#, _the least
part_; #onne cyme s man s t swiftoste hors hafa t :m :restan
d:le and t :m m:stan#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest
horse to the first part and to the largest_. But, #t by:ne land is
asteweard brdost# (not #brdoste#), _the cultivated land is broadest
eastward_; #and# (#hit#) #bi ealra wyrta m:st#, _and it is largest of
all herbs_; #Ac hyra# (=#hiera#) #r is m:st on :m gafole e 
Finnas him gylda#, _But their income is greatest in the tribute that
the Fins pay them_.

(6) The comparative is usually followed by #onne# and the nominative
case: #S hwl bi micle l:ssa onne re hwalas#, _That whale is much
smaller than other whales_; # wunda s mdes bo dgelran onne 
wunda s lchaman#. _The wounds of the mind are more secret than the
wounds of the body_.

But when #onne# is omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative:
#re lesend, e mra is ond m:rra eallum gesceaftum#, _Our Redeemer,
who is greater and more glorious than all created things_; #n ongeat h
n hiene selfne betran rum gdum monnum#, _nor did he consider himself
better than other good men_.


#Adverbs.#

97. (1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding -or for the comparative
and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative:

  _Positive._          _Comparative._    _Superlative._
  georne, _willingly_  geornor           geornost
  swe, _very,        swor, _more_    swost, _most, chiefly_
      severely_
  :r, _before_         :ror, _formerly_  :rest, _first_
  nor, _northwards_   noror            normest[1]

(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping -ra of
the corresponding adjective form:

  _Positive._      _Comparative._  _Superlative._
  longe, _long_    leng            lengest
  micle, _much_    m              m:st
  wel, _well_      bet             betst

    [Footnote 1: This is really a double superlative, m being itself
    an old superlative suffix. _Cf._ Latin _opti-m-us_. In Mn.E.
    _northmost_ and _hindmost_, _-m-est_ has been confused with
    _-most_, with which etymologically it has nothing todo.]


#Expressions of Time.#

98. (1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by
the accusative case: #Ealle  hwle e t lc bi inne#, _All the time
that the body is within_; #twgen dagas#, _for two days_; #ealne weg#,
_all the way, always_.

(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no
preposition is used: #y: ilcan dge#, _the same day_; #:lce gare#,
_each year_; #y: gare#, _that year_; #:lce dge#, _each day_.

(3) Time or space within which is expressed by #on# and the dative: #on
sumera#, _in summer_; #on wintra#, _in winter_; #on ff dagum#, _in five
days_; #on ff mlum#, _in five miles_; #on issum gare#, _in this
year_; #on :m tman#, _in those times_. Sometimes by the genitive
without a preceding preposition: #:s gares#, _in that year_.


99. VOCABULARY.

  t gefylce [folc], _troop, division_.
  t lond (land), _land_.
  so ml, _mile_.
  er ... er, _the one ... the other_; _the former ... the latter_.
  s sige, _victory_.
  sige[2] habban, _to win (the) victory_.
  sprecan, _to speak_.
  t swn (swy:n), _swine, hog_.
  wste, _waste_.

    [Footnote 2: #Sige# usually, but not invariably, precedes
    #habban#.]


100. EXERCISES.

I. 1. H hf ro swe swift hors. 2. Ic hbbe nigontene scap ond m
onne twntig swna. 3.So gde cwn cest tw hund monna. 4.Uton
feohtan wi  Dene mid rm hunde scipa. 5.Ond he w:ron on tw:m
gefylcum: on rum ws[3] Bchsecg ond Halfdene  h:nan cyningas, ond
on rum w:ron  eorlas. 6. spricst slce. 7.onne rt :lc mon
his weges. 8.fter monigum dagum, hfde lfred cyning[4] sige. 9.is
lond is wste styccem:lum. 10.s feld is fftiges mla brd.
11.lfred cyning hfde monige frend, for :m e h ws :ger ge ws
ge gd. 12. hwalas, e  ymbe spricst, sind micle l:ssan rum
hwalum. 13.Ho is ieldre onne hiere swuster, ac mn bror is ieldra
onne ho. 14.W cuma t :m tne :lce gare. 15. men e 
swiftostan hors h:fdon w:ron mid :m Denum fower dagas.

II. 1. Our army (#werod#) was in two divisions: one was large, the other
was small. 2.The richest men in the kingdom have more (#m#) than
thirty ships. 3.He was much wiser than his brother. 4.He fights
against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5.After three years King
Alfred gained the victory. 6.Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses
well. 7.This man's son is both wiser and better than his father.
8.When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9.The richest men
are not always () the wisest men.

    [Footnote 3: See p.100, note on #gefeaht#.]  [[Linenote 100.8]]

    [Footnote 4: The proper noun comes first in appositive
    expressions: #lfred cyning#, #Sidroc eorl#, #Hahmund
    bisceop#.]




CHAPTER XVIII.

STRONG VERBS: CLASS I. (See  17.)


#Syntax of Moods.#

101. Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E.Strong
Conjugation, it is estimated[1] that seventy-eight have preserved their
strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and
that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely
disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin
origin introduced through the Norman-French.

  NOTE.--Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms,
  are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss,
  therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative
  prefixes. "Thus from the Anglo-Saxon #flwan#, _to flow_, ten new
  compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of
  which ten, only one, #oferflwan#, _to overflow_, survives with
  us. In a similar manner, from the verb #sittan#, _to sit_,
  thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be
  found to-day." Lounsbury, _ib._ Part I, p.107.

    [Footnote 1: Lounsbury, _English Language_, Part II,  241.]


102. #Class I: The "Drive" Conjugation.#

  Vowel Succession: , , i, i.

  INFINITIVE.  PRETERIT SING.  PRETERIT PLUR.  PAST PART.

  Drf-an      drf            drif-on         gedrif-en, _to drive_.

         #Indicative.#                     #Subjunctive.#

          PRESENT.                          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic drf-e              _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.  drf-st (drf-est)          2.   } drf-e
          3. h drf- (drf-e)            3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } (drf-a)                2. g  } drf-en
          3. he }                          3. he }

          PRETERIT.                         PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic drf                _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.  drif-e                      2.   } drif-e
          3. h drf                        3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } drif-on                  2. g  } drif-en
          3. he }                          3. he }

          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#

  _Sing._ 2. drf          drf-an        drf-ende
  _Plur._ 1. drf-an
          2. drf-a

                    #Gerund.#             #Past Participle.#

                    t drf-anne (-enne)  gedrif-en


#Tense Formation of Strong Verbs.#

103. (1) It will be seen from the conjugation of #drfan# that the
_present stem_ in all strong verbs is used throughout the present
indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the
gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings,
therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present
stem.

(2) That the _preterit singular stem_ is used in only two forms of the
verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative: #Ic
drf#, #h drf#.

(3) That the _preterit plural stem_ is used in the preterit plural
indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative,
and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive.

(4) That the _stem of the past participle_ (#gedrif-#) is used for no
other form.


#Syntax of the Verb.#

104. The Indicative Mood[2] represents the predicate _as a reality_. It
is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in
O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E.

    [Footnote 2: Usage sanctions _mood_, but the better spelling
    would be _mode_. It is from the Lat. _modus_, whereas _mood_ (=
    _temper_) is O.E. _md_.]


105. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate _as an idea_.[3] It
is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E.

1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or
entreaty, and usually precedes its subject: #Se n nama gehlgod#,
_Hallowed be Thy name_; #Ne swerigen g#, _Do not swear_.

2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere
futurity.[4] (_a_) Concessive clauses (introduced by #ah#, _though_)
and (_b_) temporal clauses (introduced by #:r#, #:r :m e#,
_before_) are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The
subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (_c_) after verbs
of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the
narration.[5] "Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the
subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective
reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a
statement as reported"[6]: #ah man sette twgen f:tels full eala
oe wteres#, _though one set two vessels full of ale or water_; #:r
:m e hit eall forhergod w:re#, _before it was all ravaged_; #H
s:de t Normanna land w:re swy:e lang and swy:e sml#, _He said
that the Norwegians' land was very long and very narrow_.

    [Footnote 3: Gildersleeve's _Latin Grammar_,  255.]

    [Footnote 4: Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place
    _before_ the founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive: #:r :m
    e Rmeburh getimbrod w:re# = _before Rome were founded_; but,
    #fter :m e Rmeburh getimbrod ws# = _after Rome was
    founded_.]

    [Footnote 5: "By the time of lfric, however, the levelling
    influence of the indicative [after verbs of saying] has made
    considerable progress."--Gorrell, _Indirect Discourse in
    Anglo-Saxon_ (Dissertation, 1895), p.101.]

    [Footnote 6: Hotz, _On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in
    Anglo-Saxon_ (Zrich, 1882).]


106. The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession: #Ihannes,
cum t m#, _John, come to me_; #And forgyf s re gyltas#, _And forgive
us our trespasses_; #Ne drf s fram #, _Do not drive us from thee_.


107. (1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases
(138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a
neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb.
#Htan# (_tocommand, bid_), #l:tan# (_tolet, permit_), and onginnan
(_tobegin_) are regularly followed by the Infinitive: #Hine rdan
lyste#, _To ride pleased him_; #Ht  b:re settan#, _He bade set down
the bier_;[7] #L:ta  ly:tlingas t m cuman#, _Let the little ones
come to me_; # ongann h sprecan#, _then began he to speak_.

(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute
construction (animitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for
the expression of time:[8] #Him  gy:t sprecendum#, _While he was yet
speaking_; #gefylledum dagum#, _the days having been fulfilled_.

    [Footnote 7: Not, _He commanded the bier to be set down._ The
    Mn.E. passive in such sentences is a loss both in force and
    directness.]

    [Footnote 8: Callaway, _The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon_
    (Dissertation, 1889), p.19.]


108. The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used:

(1) To express purpose: #t ode s swere his s:d t swenne#, _Out
went the sower his seed to sow_.

(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective: #Sy:mn,
ic hbbe  t secgenne sum ing#, _Simon, Ihave something to say to
thee_; #Hit is scondlc ymb swelc t sprecanne#, _It is shameful to
speak about such things_.

(3) After #bon# (#wesan#) to denote duty or necessity: #Hwt is n m
ymbe is t sprecanne#, _What more is there now to say about this_?
#onne is t geencenne hwaet Crst self cw#, _then it behooves to
bethink what Christ himself said_.

  NOTE.--The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive
  after #t#. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive;
  hence the use of _to_ with the Infinitive in Mn.E.As late as the
  Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even
  after the auxiliary verbs:

          "Some pagan shore,
  Where these two Christian armies _might combine_
  The blood of malice in a vein of league,
  And not _to spend_ it so unneighbourly."
                                _--King John_, V, ii, 39.

  When _to_ lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as
  a merely formal prefix, _for_ was used to supplement the purpose
  element: _What went ye out for to see_?[9]

    [Footnote 9: This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in
    Mn.E., the so-called "infinitive in _-ing_." The whole subject
    has been befogged for the lack of an accepted nomenclature, one
    that shall do violence neither to grammar nor to history.]




CHAPTER XIX.

STRONG VERBS: CLASSES II AND III.


109. #Class II: The "Choose" Conjugation.#

  Vowel Succession: o, a, u, o.

  INFINITIVE.[1]  PRET. SING.  PRET. PLUR.[2]  PAST PART.[2]

  cos-an,        cas,        cur-on          gecor-en, _to choose_.

         #Indicative.#           #Subjunctive#.

          PRESENT.                        PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic cos-e            _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.  cest (cos-est)          2.   } cos-e
          3. h cest (cos-e)           3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } cos-a                2. g  } cos-en
          3. he }                        3. he }

          PRETERIT.                       PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic cas              _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.  cur-e                     2.   } cur-e
          3. h cas                      3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } cur-on                 2. g  } cur-en
          3. he }                        3. he }

          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#

  _Sing._ 2. cos          cos-an        cos-ende
  _Plur._ 1. cos-an
          2. cos-a

                    #Gerund.#             #Past Participle.#

                    t cos-anne (-enne)  gecor-en

    [Footnote 1: A few verbs of Class II have  instead of o in the
    infinitive:

      brcan, brac, brucon, gebrocen, _to enjoy_ [brook].
      bgan, bag, bugon, gebogen, _to bend, bow_.]

    [Footnote 2: By a law known as Grammatical Change, final , s,
    and h of strong verbs generally become d, r, and g,
    respectively, in the preterit plural and past participle.]


110. #Class III: The "Bind" Conjugation.#

  Vowel Succession: {i,e}, a, u, {u,o}.

The present stem ends in m, n, l, r, or h, + one or more consonants:

  m: belimp-an, { belomp }, belump-on, belump-en, _to belong_.
                { belamp }

  n:  bind-an,  { bond },   bund-on,   gebund-en, _to bind_.
                { band }

  l:  help-an,    healp,    hulp-on,   geholp-en, _to help_.

  r:  weor-an,   wear,    wurd-on,   geword-en, _to become_.

  h:  gefeoht-an, gefeaht,  gefuht-on, gefoht-en, _to fight_.

  NOTE 1.--If the present stem ends in a nasal (m, n) + a consonant,
  the past participle retains the u of the pret. plur.; but if the
  present stem ends in a liquid (l, r) or h, + a consonant, the past
  participle has o instead of u.

  NOTE 2.--Why do we not find #*halp#, #*war#, and #*faht# in the
  pret. sing.? Because a before l, r, or h, + a consonant, underwent
  "breaking" to ea. Breaking also changes every e followed by r or
  h, + a consonant, to eo: #weoran# (< #*weran#), feohtan
  (< #*fehtan#).


111.     #Indicative.#            #Subjunctive.#

          PRESENT.                         PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic bind-e             _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.  bintst (bind-est)          2.   } bind-e
          3. h bint (bind-e)             3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                 _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  }  bind-a                2. g  } bind-en
          3. he }                         3. he }

          PRETERIT.                        PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic bond               _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.  bund-e                     2.   } bund-e
          3. h bond                       3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                 _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } bund-on                 2. g  } bund-en
          3. he }                         3. he }

          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#

  _Sing._ 2. bind          bind-an        bind-ende
  _Plur._ 1. bind-an
          2. bind-a

                    #Gerund.#             #Past Participle.#

                    t bind-anne (-enne)  gebund-en


112. VOCABULARY.

  t gefeoht, _fight, battle_.
  so gerecednes, _narration_ [#reccan#].
  t gesceap, _creation_ [#scieppan#].
  so hergung ( 39, (3)), _harrying, plundering_ [#hergian#].
  s medu (medo) ( 51), _mead_.
  so meolc, _milk_.
  s middangeard, _world_ [middle-yard].
  s munuc, _monk_ [monachus].
  so my:re, mare [#mearh#].
  h s:de, _he said_.
  he s:don, _they said_.
  so spd, _riches_ [speed].
  spdig, _rich, prosperous_ [speedy].
  so td, _time_ [tide].
  unspdig, _poor_.
  s westanwind, _west-wind_.
  t wn, _wine_.

  rsan,         rs,    rison,    risen,     _to arise_.
  bdan,          bd,     bidon,     gebiden,    _to remain, expect_
                                                    (with gen.)
  drogan,[3]     drag,   drugon,    gedrogen,   _to endure, suffer_.
  drincan,        dronc,   druncon,   gedruncen,  _to drink_.
  findan,         fond,    fundon,    gefunden,   _to find_.
  geswcan        geswc,  geswicon,  geswicen,   _to cease, cease from_
                                                    (with gen.)
  iernan (yrnan), orn,     urnon,     geurnen,    _to run_.
  onginnan,       ongonn,  ongunnon,  ongunnen,   _to begin_.
  rdan,          rd,     ridon,     geriden,    _to ride_.
  singan,         song,    sungon,    gesungen,   _to sing_.
  wrtan,         wrt,    writon,    gewriten,   _to write_.

    [Footnote 3: _Cf._ the Scotch "to _dree_ one's weird" = _to
    endure one's fate_.]


113. EXERCISES.

I. 1. fter issum wordum, s munuc wrt ealle  gerecednesse on nre
bc. 2. eorlas ridon p :r :m e  Dene s gefeohtes geswicen.
3.Cdmon song :rest be middangeardes gesceape. 4.S cyning ond 
rcostan men drinca my:ran meolc, ond  unspdigan drinca medu.
5.Ond h rs ond s wind geswc. 6.He s:don t he :r westwindes
biden. 7.Hwt is n m ymbe s ing t sprecanne? 8. secgas
ongunnon geswcan :re hergunga. 9. bag t lond :r astryhte,
oe so s: in on t lond. 10.s lond belimpa t, :m Englum.
11.ah  Dene ealne dg gefuhten, get hfde lfred cyning sige.
12.Ond s (afterwards) ymbe nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning wi ealne
one here t Wiltne.

II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare's milk and wine, but the poor
men drank mead. 2. Isuffered many things before you began to help me
(dat.). 3.About two days afterwards (#s ymbe twgen dagas#), the
plundering ceased. 4.The king said that he fought against all the army
(#here#). 5.Although the Danes remained one month (98, (1)), they did
not begin to fight. 6.These gifts belonged to my brother. 7.The earls
were glad because their lord was (indicative) with them. 8.What did you
find? 9.Then wrote he about (#be#) the wise man's deeds. 10.What more
is there to endure?




CHAPTER XX.

STRONG VERBS: CLASSES IV, V, VI, AND VII.

CONTRACT VERBS.

[The student can now complete the conjugation for himself ( 103). Only
the principal parts will be given.]


114. #Class IV: The "Bear" Conjugation.#

  Vowel Succession: e, , :, o.

The present stem ends in l, r, or m, no consonant following:

  l:   hel-an, hl,       h:l-on,          gehol-en, _to conceal_.
  r:   ber-an, br,       b:r-on,          gebor-en, _to bear_.

The two following verbs are slightly irregular:

  m: { nim-an, nm (nam), nm-on (nm-on), genum-en, _to take_.
     { cum-an, c(w)m,    c(w)m-on,       gecum-en, _to come_.


115. #Class V: The "Give" Conjugation.#

  Succession of Vowels: e (ie), , :, e.

The present stem ends in a single consonant, never a liquid or nasal:

  met-an,  mt,  m:ton,   gemet-en,  _to measure, mete_.
  gief-an, geaf, gaf-on, gegief-en, _to give_.

  NOTE 1.--The palatal consonants, g, c, and sc, convert a following
  e into ie,  into ea, and : into a. Hence #giefan# (< #*gefan#),
  #geaf# (< #*gf#), #gafon# (< #*g:fon#), #gegiefen# (<#*gegefen#).
  This change is known as Palatalization. See 8.

  NOTE 2.--The infinitives of the following important verbs are only
  apparently exceptional:

  biddan,  bd,  b:d-on,  gebed-en, _to ask for_ [bid].
  licgan,  lg,  l:g-on,  geleg-en, _to lie, extend_.
  sittan,  st,  s:t-on,  geset-en, _to sit_.

The original e reappears in the participial stems. It was changed to i
in the present stems on account of a former -jan in the infinitive
(#bid-jan#, etc.). See 61. To the same cause is due the doubling of
consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with the
exception of r, were doubled after a short vowel, when an original j
followed.


116. #Class VI: The "Shake" Conjugation.#

  Succession of Vowels: a, , , a.

  scac-an,  scc,  scc-on,  gescac-en,  _to shake_.
  far-an,   fr,   fr-on,   gefar-en,   _to go_ [fare].


117. #Class VII: The "Fall" Conjugation.#

  Vowel Succession: {,:}, , , {,:};
  or {ea,a,}, o, o, {ea,a,}.


  (1)  ht-an,    ht,    ht-on,    geht-en,    _to call, name,
                                                    command_.
       l:t-an,    lt,    lt-on,    gel:t-en,    _to let_.

  (2)  feall-an,  foll,  foll-on,  gefeall-en,  _to fall_.
       heald-an,  hold,  hold-on,  geheald-en,  _to hold_.
       haw-an,   how,   how-on,   gehaw-en,   _to hew_.
       grw-an,   grow,  grow-on,  gegrw-en,   _to grow_.

  NOTE 1.--This class consists of the Reduplicating Verbs; that is,
  those verbs that originally formed their preterits not by internal
  vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing to the present stem the
  initial consonant + e (_cf._ Gk. #le-loipa# and Lat. _d[)e]-di_).
  Contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix and the
  root, the fusion resulting in  or o: #*he-hat# > #heht# > #ht#.

  NOTE 2.--A peculiar interest attaches to #htan#: the forms
  #htte# and #htton# are the sole remains in O.E. of the original
  Germanic passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits:
  #htte# = _I am_ or _was called_, _he is_ or _was called_. No
  other verb in O.E. could have a passive sense without calling in
  the aid of the verb _to be_ (141).


#Contract Verbs.#

118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class;
they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The
present stem ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of the
infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthening being the result.
The following are the most important of these verbs:

  Classes.

    I. on  (< *han),  h,  ig-on, { geig-en  }, _to thrive_.
                                        { geung-en }
   II. ton  (< *tohan), tah, tug-on,   getog-en,    _to draw, go_
                                                         [tug].
    V. son  (< *sehwan), seah, sw-on,   gesew-en,    _to see_.
   VI. slan (< *slahan), slh, slg-on,  geslg-en,   _to slay_.
  VII. fn   (< *fhan),  fng, fng-on,  gefong-en,   _to seize_
                                                         [fang].


119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of
i-umlaut, 58):

  _Sing._ 1. Ic o      to     so     sla     f
          2.  hst    tehst  siehst  sliehst  fhst
          3. h h     teh   sieh   slieh   fh

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } o  to    so    sla    f
          3. he }

The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given stems.


120. VOCABULARY.

  so :ht, _property, possession_ [#gan#].
  aweg, _away_ [#on weg#].
  so fierd, _English army_ [#faran#].
  s here, _Danish army_ [#hergian#].
  on gehwre hond, _on both sides_.
  sige niman (= sige habban), _to win (the) victory_.
  so spr:c, _speech, language_.
  t rce fn, _to come to the throne_.[1]
  t wl [Val-halla] } _slaughter, carnage_.
  s wlsliht,        }
  s weall, _wall, rampart_.
  t wildor, _wild beast, reindeer_.
  s wngeard, _vineyard_.

  brecan,[2] brc,   br:con,   brocen,   _to break down_.
  cwean,     cw,    cw:don,    gecweden,  _to say_ [quoth].
  geson,     geseah,  geswon,   gesewen,   _to see_.
  grwan,     grow,   growon,   gegrwen,  _to grow_.
  ofslan,    ofslh,  ofslgon,  ofslgen,  _to slay_.
  sprecan,    sprc,   spr:con,   gesprecen, _to speak_.
  stelan,     stl,    st:lon,    gestolen,  _to steal_.
  stondan,    std,    stdon,    gestonden, _to stand_.
  weaxan,     wox,    woxon,    geweaxen,  _to grow, increase_ [wax].

    [Footnote 1: Literally, _to take to (the) kingdom_. _Cf._
    "Have you anything to take to?" (_Two Gentlemen of Verona_,
    IV, i,42).]

    [Footnote 2: #Brecan# belongs properly in Class V, but it has
    been drawn into Class IV possibly through the influence of the r
    in the root.]


121. EXERCISES.

I. 1. fter :m slce (indeed) ealle men spr:con ne (one) spr:ce.
2.Ond h cw: "is is n folc, ond ealle he spreca ne spr:ce."
3.On sumum stwum wngeardas grwa. 4.H ht  n:dran ofslan.
5. Engle br:con one longan weall, ond sige nmon. 6.Ond t s:d
grow ond wox. 7.Ic ne geseah one mon s e s cnapan adesan stl.
8.H ws swy:e spdig man on :m :htum e hiera spda on[3] bo,
t is, on wildrum. 9.Ond :r wear (was) micel wlsliht on gehwre
hond. 10.Ond fter issum gefeohte cm lfred cyning mid his fierde,
ond gefeaht wi ealne one here, ond sige nm. 11.os burg htte[4]
scesdn (Ashdown). 12.:re cwne lc lg on :m hse. 13.Ond s
d:l e :r aweg cm ws swy:e ly:tel. 14.Ond s rotene dagas
ered t rce fng.

II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes.
2.Before the thanes came, the king rode away. 3.They said (#s:don#)
that all the men spoke one language. 4.They bore the queen's body to
Wilton. 5.Alfred gave many gifts to his army (dat. without #t#) before
he went away. 6.These men are called earls. 7.God sees all things.
8.The boy held the reindeer with (#mid#) his hands. 9.About six months
afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came to the throne. 10.He
said that there was very great slaughter on both sides.

    [Footnote 3: See  94, (5).]

    [Footnote 4: See  117, Note 2.]




CHAPTER XXI.

WEAK VERBS ( 18).


122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more
recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the
roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the growing conjugation
in O.E. as it is in Mn.E.We instinctively put our newly coined or
borrowed words into this conjugation (_telegraphed_, _boycotted_); and
children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say _runned_ for _ran_, _seed_
for _saw_, _teared_ for _tore_, _drawed_ for _drew_, and _growed_ for
_grew_. So, for example, when Latin _dictre_ and _brevire_ came into
O.E., they came as weak verbs, #dihtian# and #brfian#.


#The Three Classes of Weak Verbs.#

123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infinitive alone, to
which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so
invaded by Class II that but three important verbs remain to it:
#habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; and #secgan#, _to say_.
Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II andI.
Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded
by r. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs; that is, those with
infinitive in #-r-ian# and those with infinitive in -an (not -ian).


#Class I.#

124. The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in -ede
and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively.

  NOTE.--The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan (=
  -ian). This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these
  verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending
  in a double consonant (115, Note2). The weak verb is frequently
  the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such cases, the
  root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular
  of the strong verb: Mn.E. _drench_ (= _to make drink_), _lay_ (=
  _to make lie_), _rear_ (= _to make rise_), and _set_ (= _to make
  sit_), are the umlauted forms of #dronc# (preterit singular of
  #drincan#), #lg# (preterit singular of #licgan#), #rs# (preterit
  singular of #rsan#), and #st# (preterit singular of #sittan#).


#Preterit and Past Participle in _-ede_ and _-ed_.#

125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double
consonants mm, nn, ss, bb, cg (=gg), add -ede for the preterit, and -ed
for the past participle, the double consonant being always made single:

  ri:  neri-an,   ner-ede,   gener-ed,   _to save_.
  mm:  fremm-an,  frem-ede,  gefrem-ed,  _to perform_ [frame].
  nn:  enn-an,   en-ede,   geen-ed,   _to extend_.
  ss:  cnyss-an,  cnys-ede,  gecnys-ed,  _to beat_.
  bb:  swebb-an,  swef-ede,  geswef-ed,  _to put to sleep_.
  cg:  wecg-an,   weg-ede,   geweg-ed,   _to agitate_.

  NOTE.--#Lecgan#, _to lay_, is the only one of these verbs that
  syncopates the e: #lecgan#, #legde# (#lde#), #gelegd# (#geld#),
  instead of #legede#, #geleged#.


#Preterit and Past Participle in _-de_ and _-ed_.#

126. All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add -de for the preterit
and -ed for the past participle. This division includes, therefore, all
stems long by nature (10, (3), (_a_)):

  d:l-an,   d:l-de,   ged:l-ed,   _to deal out, divide_ [d:l].
  dm-an,   dm-de,   gedm-ed,   _to judge_ [dm].
  grt-an,  grt-te,  gegrt-ed,  _to greet_.
  her-an,  her-de,  geher-ed,  _to hear_.
  l:d-an,   l:d-de,   gel:d-ed,   _to lead_.

  NOTE 1.--A preceding voiceless consonant (9, Note) changes -de
  into -te: #*grt-de# > #grt-te#; #*mt-de# > #mt-te#; #*ec-de#
  > #ec-te#. Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the
  participles: #gegrt-ed# > #*gegrt-d# > #gegrt(t)#; #gel:d-ed# >
  #gel:d(d)#.

  NOTE 2.--#Ban#, _to dwell, cultivate_, has an admixture of
  strong forms in the past participle: #ban#, #bde#, #gebd#
  (#by:n#, #gebn#). The present participle survives in Mn.E.
  _husband_ = _house-dweller_.


127. It includes, also, all stems long by position ( 10, (3), (_b_))
except those in mm, nn, ss, bb, and cg (125):

  send-an,   send-e,   gesend-ed,   _to send_.
  sett-an,   set-te,   geset-ed,    _to set_ [sittan].
  sigl-an,   sigl-de,  gesigl-ed,   _to sail_.
  spend-an,  spend-e,  gespend-ed,  _to spend_.
  tredd-an,  tred-de,  getred-ed,   _to tread_.

  NOTE.--The participles frequently undergo syncope and contraction:
  #gesended# > #gesend#; #geseted# > #geset(t)#; #gespended# >
  #gespend#; #getreded# > #getred(d)#.


#Irregular Verbs of Class I.#

128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are
irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The
preterit ends in -de, the past participle in -d; but, through the
influence of a preceding voiceless consonant (9, Note), -ed is
generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The most important of these
verbs are as follows:

  bring-an,  brh-te,  gebrh-t,  _to bring_.
  byc-gan,   boh-te,   geboh-t,   _to buy_.
  sc-an,    sh-te,   gesh-t,   _to seek_.
  sell-an,   seal-de,  geseal-d,  _to give, sell_ [hand-sel].
  t:c-an,    t:h-te,   get:h-t,   _to teach_.
  tell-an,   teal-de,  geteal-d,  _to count_ [tell].
  enc-an,   h-te,   geh-t,   _to think_.
  ync-an,   h-te,   geh-t,   _to seem_ [methinks].
  wyrc-an,   worh-te,  geworh-t,  _to work_.

  NOTE.--Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently
  written with an inserted e: #bycgean#, #scean#, #t:cean#, etc.
  This e indicates that c and g have palatal value; that is, are to
  be followed with a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c
  usually passes into Mn.E. _ch_: #t:c(e)an# > _to teach_;
  #r:c(e)an# > _to reach_; #strecc(e)an# > _to stretch_. #Sc(e)an#
  gives _beseech_ as well as _seek_. See 8.


#Conjugation of Class I.#

129. Paradigms of #nerian#, _to save_; #fremman#, _to perform_;
#d:lan#, _to divide_:

        #Indicative.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic nerie       fremme     d:le
          2.  nerest      fremest    d:lst
          3. h nere       freme     d:l

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } neria   fremma    d:la
          3. he }

          PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic nerede      fremede    d:lde
          2.  neredest    fremedest  d:ldest
          3. h nerede      fremede    d:lde

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } neredon  fremedon   d:ldon
          3. he }

         #Subjunctive.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.   } nerie    fremme     d:le
          3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  }  nerien  fremmen    d:len
          3. he }

          PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.   } nerede   fremede    d:lde
          3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } nereden  fremeden   d:lden
          3. he }

         #Imperative.#

  _Sing._ 2. nere           freme      d:l

  _Plur._ 1. nerian         fremman    d:lan
          2. neria         fremma    d:la

         #Infinitive.#

             nerian         fremman    d:lan

  #Gerund.#

  t nerianne (-enne)    t fremmanne (-enne)    t d:lanne (-enne)

  #Present Participle.#

             neriende       fremmende   d:lende

  #Past Participle.#

             genered        gefremed    ged:led

  NOTE.--The endings of the preterit present no difficulties; in the
  2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe
  (_a_) that double consonants in the stem are made single:
  #fremest#, #freme# (not #*freemmest#, #*freemme#); #enest#,
  #ene#; #setest# (#setst#), #seete# (#sett#); #fylst#, #fyl#,
  from #fyllan#, _to fill_; (_b_) that syncope is the rule in stems
  long by nature: #d:lst# (< #d:lest#), #d:l# (< #d:le#); #dmst#
  (< #dmest#), #dm# (< #dme#); #herst# (< #herest#), #her#
  (< #here#). Double consonants are also made single in the
  imperative 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by
  nature take no final -e in the imperative: #d:l#, #her#, #dm#.


#Class II.#

130. The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in -ian (not
#-r-ian#), the preterit singular in -ode, the past participle in -od.
The preterit plural usually has #-edon#, however, instead of #-odon#:

  eard-ian,   eard-ode,   geeard-od,   _to dwell_ [eore].
  luf-ian,    luf-ode,    geluf-od,    _to love_ [lufu].
  rcs-ian,   rcs-ode,   gercs-od,   _to rule_ [rce].
  sealf-ian,  sealf-ode,  gesealf-od,  _to anoint_ [salve].
  segl-ian,   segl-ode,   gesegl-od,   _to sail_ [segel].

  NOTE.--These verbs have no trace of original umlaut, since their
  -ian was once #-jan#. Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded
  from the influence of the j (= i) by the interposition of .


#Conjugation of Class II.#

131. Paradigm of #lufian#, _to love_:

          #Indicative.#                     #Subjunctive.#

          PRESENT.                          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic lufie               _Sing._ 1. Ic     }
          2. u lufast                      2.   } lufie
          3. h lufa                       3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } lufia                   2. g  } lufien
          3. he }                          3. he }

          PRETERIT.                         PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic lufode              _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.  lufodest                    2.   } lufode
          3. h lufode                      3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } lufedon (-odon)          2. g  } lufeden (-oden)
          3. he }                          3. he }

          #Imperative.#    #Infinitive.#  #Present Participle.#

  _Sing._ 2. lufa          lufian         lufiende
  _Plur._ 1. lufian
          2. lufia

                   #Gerund.#              #Past Participle.#

                   t lufianne (-enne)    gelufod

  NOTE 1.--The -ie (-ien) occurring in the present must be
  pronounced as a dissyllable. The y-sound thus interposed between
  the i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g: #lufie#, or
  #lufige#; #lufien#, or #lufigen#. So also for ia: #lufia#, or
  #lufiga#; #lufian#, or #lufig(e)an#.

  NOTE 2.--In the preterit singular, -ade, -ude, and -ede are not
  infrequent for -ode.


#Class III.#

132. The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II.
Like certain verbs of Class I (128), the preterit and past participle
are formed by adding -de and -d; like Class II, the 2d and 3d present
indicative singular end in -ast and -a, the imperative 2d singular in
-a:

  habb-an,  hf-de,          gehf-d,          _to have_.
  libb-an,  lif-de,          gelif-d,          _to live_.
  secg-an,  s:d-e (sg-de),  ges:d (gesg-d),  _to say_.


#Conjugation of Class III.#

133. Paradigms of #habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; #secgan#,
_to say_.

        #Indicative.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic hbbe           libbe      secge
          2.  hfst (hafast)  lifast     sgst (sagast)
          3. h hf (hafa)    lifa      sg (saga)

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } habba       libba     secga
          3. he }

          PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic hfde           lifde      s:de
          2.  hfdest         lifdest    s:dest
          3. h hfde           lifde      s:de

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } hfdon       lifdon     s:don
          3. he }

         #Subjunctive.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.   } hbbe        libbe      secge
          3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } hbben       libben     secgen
          3. he }

          PRETERIT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.   } hfde        lifde      s:de
          3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } hfden       lifden     s:den
          3. he }

         #Imperative.#

  _Sing._ 2. hafa               lifa       saga
  _Plur._ 1. habban             libban     secgan
          2. habba             libba     secga

  #Infinitive.#

             habban             libban     secgan

  #Gerund.#

  t habbanne (-enne)    t libbanne (-enne)    t secganne (-enne)

  #Present Participle.#

             hbbende           libbende   secgende

  #Past Participle.#

             gehfd             gelifd     ges:d




CHAPTER XXII.

REMAINING VERBS; VERB-PHRASES WITH #habban#, #bon#, AND #weoran#.


#Anomalous Verbs.# (See  19.)

134. These are:

  bon (wesan),  ws,    w:ron,   ----,   _tobe_.
  willan,        wolde,  woldon,  ----,   _to will, intend_.
  dn,           dyde,   dydon,   gedn,  _to do, cause_.
  gn,           ode,   odon,   gegn,  _togo_.

  NOTE.--In the original Indo-Germanic language, the first person
  of the present indicative singular ended in (1) or (2)mi.
  _Cf._ Gk. +lu-+, +ei-mi+, Lat. _am-_, _su-m_. The Strong and Weak
  Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the -class. The four
  Anomalous Verbs mentioned above are the sole remains in O.E. of
  the mi-class. Note the surviving m in #eom# _I am_, and #dm# _I
  do_ (Northumbrian form). These mi-verbs are sometimes called
  non-Thematic to distinguish them from the Thematic or -verbs.


#Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs.#

135. Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular:

         #Indicative.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic eom (bom)     wille     d      g
          2.  eart (bist)    wilt      dst    g:st
          3. h is (bi)       wille     d     g:

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } sind(on)    willa    d     g
          3. he }

         #Subjunctive.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.   } se         wille     d      g
          3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } sen        willen    dn     gn
          3. he }

  NOTE.--The preterit subjunctive of #bon# is formed, of course,
  not from #ws#, but from #w:ron#. See 103,(3).


#Preterit-Present Verbs.# (See  19.)

136. These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense
(indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, astrong
preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all
have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E.Auxiliary Verbs belong to this
class.

  witan,  { wiste, }  wiston,     gewiten,       _to know_
          { wisse, }                               [to wit, wot].
  gan,     hte,     hton,      gen (adj.),   _to possess_ [owe].
  cunnan,   ce,     con,    { gecunnen,   }  _to know_, _can_
                                { c (adj.), }    [uncouth, cunning].
  durran,   dorste,   dorston,    ----           _to dare_.
  sculan,   sceolde,  sceoldon,   ----           _shall_.
  magan,  { meahte,   meahton, }  ----           _to be able_, _may_.
          { mihte,    mihton,  }
  mtan,    mste,    mston,     ----           _may_, _must_.

  NOTE.--The change in meaning from preterit to present, with
  retention of the preterit form, is not uncommon in other
  languages. Several examples are found in Latin and Greek
  (cf._nvi_ and +oida+, _Iknow_). Mn.E. has gone further still:
  #hte# and #mste#, which had already suffered the loss of their
  old preterits (#h#, #mt#), have been forced back again into the
  present (_ought_, _must_). Having exhausted, therefore, the only
  means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the strong and the
  weak, it is not likely that either _ought_ or _must_ will ever
  develop distinct preterit forms.


#Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs.#

137. The irregularities occur in the present indicative and subjunctive:

         #Indicative.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic wt       h    con (can)
          2.  wst      hst  const (canst)
          3. h wt       h    con (can)

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } witon  gon  cunnon
          3. he }

  _Sing._ 1. Ic dear    sceal   mg    mt
          2.  dearst  scealt  meaht  mst
          3. h dear    sceal   mg    mt

  _Plur._ 1. w
          2. g durron  sculon  magon  mton
          3. he

         #Subjunctive.#

          PRESENT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.   } wite   ge   cunne
          3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } witen  gen  cunnen
          3. he }

  _Sing._ 1. Ic  }
          2.   } durre   scule (scyle)    mge   mte
          3. h  }

  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } durren  sculen (scylen)  mgen  mten
          3. he }

  NOTE 1.--#Willan# and #sculan# do not often connote simple
  futurity in Early West Saxon, yet they were fast drifting that
  way. The Mn.E. use of _shall_ only with the 1st person and _will_
  only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly
  unknown even in Shakespeare's day. The elaborate distinctions
  drawn between these words by modern grammarians are not only
  cumbersome and foreign to the genius of English, but equally
  lacking in psychological basis.

  NOTE 2.--#Sculan# originally implied the idea of (1)_duty_, or
  _compulsion_ (= _ought to_, or _must_), and this conception lurks
  with more or less prominence in almost every function of #sculan#
  in O.E.: #Dryhten bebad Moyse h h sceolde beran  earce#, _The
  Lord instructed Moses how he ought to bear the ark_; #:lc mann
  sceal be his andgietes m:e ... sprecan t he spric, and dn t
  t h d#, _Every man must, according to the measure of his
  intelligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does_. Its next
  most frequent use is to express (2)_custom_, the transition from
  the obligatory to the customary being an easy one: #S byrdesta
  sceall gyldan ffty:ne meares fell#, _The man of highest rank pays
  fifteen marten skins_.

  NOTE 3.--#Willan# expressed originally (1)_pure volition_, and
  this is its most frequent use in O.E.It may occur without the
  infinitive: #Nylle ic s synfullan da, ac ic wille t h
  gecyrre and lybbe#, _I do not desire the sinner's death, but I
  desire that he return and live_. The wish being father to the
  intention, #willan# soon came to express (2)_purpose_: #H s:de
  t h at sumum cirre wolde fandian h longe t land norryhte
  l:ge#, _He said that he intended, at some time, to investigate how
  far that land extended northward_.


#Verb-Phrases with _habban_, _bon_ (_wesan_), and _weoran_.#

_Verb-Phrases in the Active Voice._

138. The present and preterit of #habban#, combined with a past
participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect
and past perfect tenses:

          PRESENT PERFECT.                  PAST PERFECT.

  _Sing._ 1. Ic hbbe gedrifen      _Sing._ 1. Ic hfde gedrifen
          2.  hfst gedrifen              2.  hfdest gedrifen
          3. h hf gedrifen               3. h hfde gedrifen

          PRESENT PERFECT.                  PAST PERFECT.

  _Plur._ 1. w  }                  _Plur._ 1. w  }
          2. g  } habba gedrifen          2. g  } hfdon gedrifen
          3. he }                          3. he }

The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct
object: #Norymbre ond astengle hfdon lfrede cyninge as geseald#
(not #gesealde#, 82), _The Northumbrians and East Anglians had given
king Alfred oaths_; #ond hfdon miclne d:l ra horsa freten# (not
#fretenne#), _and (they) had devoured a large part of the horses_.

  NOTE.--Many sentences might be quoted in which the participle does
  agree with the direct object, but there seems to be no clear line
  of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited.
  Originally, the participle expressed a _resultant state_, and
  belonged in sense more to the object than to #habban#; but in
  Early West Saxon #habban# had already, in the majority of cases,
  become a pure auxiliary when used with the past participle. This
  is conclusively proved by the use of #habban# with intransitive
  verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as #o t he hine ofslgenne
  hfdon#, there is no occasion to translate _until they had him
  slain_ (= _resultant state_); the agreement here is more probably
  due to the proximity of #ofslgenne# to #hine#. So also #ac h
  hfdon  hiera stemn gesetenne#, _but they had already served
  out_ (_sat out_) _their military term_.


139. If the verb is intransitive, and denotes _a change of condition_,
_a departure or arrival_, #bon# (#wesan#) usually replaces #habban#.
The past participle, in such cases, partakes of the nature of an
adjective, and generally agrees with the subject: #Mne welan e ic o
hfde syndon ealle gewitene ond gedrorene#, _My possessions which I once
had are all departed and fallen away_; #w:ron  men uppe on londe of
gne#, _the men had gone up ashore_; #ond  re w:ron hungre
cwolen#, _and the others had perished of hunger_; #ond ac s micla
here ws  :r t cumen#, _and also the large army had then arrived
there_.


140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with
distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present
participle with the present and preterit of #bon# (#wesan#). The
participle remains uninflected: #ond he alle on one cyning w:run
feohtende#, _and they all were fighting against the king_; #Symle h bi
lciende, n sl:p h n:fre#, _He is always looking, nor does He ever
sleep_.

  NOTE.--In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine
  (singular or plural); hence no inference can be made as to
  agreement, since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of
  the nominative masculine (82). By analogy, therefore, the other
  genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine: #w:ron 
  ealle  doflu clypigende nre stefne#, _then were all the devils
  crying with one voice_.


_Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice._

141. Passive constructions are formed by combining #bon# (#wesan#) or
#weoran# with a past participle. The participle agrees regularly with
the subject: #he w:ron benumene :ger ge s capes ge s cornes#,
_they were deprived both of the cattle and the corn_; #h bo blende
mid :m ostrum heora scylda#, _they are blinded with the darkness of
their sins_; #and s wlhrowa Domicinus on m ylcan gare wear
cweald#, _and the murderous Domitian was killed in the same year_; #ond
elwulf aldormon wear ofslgen#, _and thelwulf, alderman, was slain_.

  NOTE 1.--To express agency, Mn.E. employs _by_, rarely _of_; M.E.
  _of_, rarely _by_; O.E. #from# (#fram#), rarely #of#: #S e Godes
  bebodu ne gecn:w, ne bi h oncnwen from Gode#, _He who does not
  recognise God's commands, will not be recognized by God_; #Betwux
  :m wear ofslagen adwine ... fram Brytta cyninge#, _Meanwhile,
  Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons_.

  NOTE 2.--O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and could
  not, therefore, distinguish between _He is being wounded_ and _He
  is wounded_. It was not until more than a hundred years after
  Shakespeare's death that _being_ assumed this function. #Weoran#,
  which originally denoted _a passage from one state to another_,
  was ultimately driven out by #bon# (#wesan#), and survives now
  only in _Woe worth_ (= _beto_).


142. VOCABULARY.

   Beormas, _Permians_.
   Deeniscan, _the Danish (men), Danes_.
   Finnas, _Fins_.
  t gewald, _control_ [#wealdan#].
  so s:, _sea_.
  so scr, _shire, district_.
  so wlstw, _battle-field_.
  gan wlstwe gewald, _to maintain possession of the battle-field_.
  s wealdend, _ruler, wielder_.

  gefleman,    geflemde,    geflemed,   _to put to flight_.
  gestaelian,  gestaelode,  gestaelod,  _to establish, restore_.
  gewissian,    gewissode,    gewissod,    _to guide, direct_.
  wcian,       wcode,       gewcod,     _to dwell_ [wc = village].


143. EXERCISES.

I. 1. Ond r ws micel wl geslgen on gehwre hond, ond elwulf
ealdormon wear ofslgen; ond  Deniscan hton wlstwe gewald. 2.Ond
s ymb nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning wi ealne one here ond hine
geflemde. 3.H s:de ah t t land se swe lang nor onan.
4. Beormas hfdon swe wel gebd (126, Note2) hiera land.
5.Ohthere s:de t so scr htte (117, Note2) Hlgoland, e h on
(94, (5)) bde. 6. Finnas wcedon be :re s:. 7.Dryhten,
lmihtiga (78, Note) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic
bidde  for nre miclan mildheortnesse t  m gewissie t num
willan; and gestaela mn md t num willan and t mnre swle earfe.
8. sceolde h :r bdan ryhtnoranwindes, for :m t land bag
:r sryhte, oe so s: in on t land, h nysse hwer. 9.For y:,
m ync betre, gif ow sw ync, t w ac s bc on t geode
wenden e w ealle gecnwan mgen.

II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward with
his army to Ashdown. 2.Lovest thou me more than these? 3.The men said
that the shire which they lived in was called Halgoland. 4.All things
were made (#wyrcan#) by God. 5.They were fighting for two days with
(=against) the Danes. 6.King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained
the victory; but the Danes retained possession of the battle-field.
7.These men dwelt in England before they came hither. 8. Ihave not
seen the book of (#ymbe#) which you speak (#sprecan#).




PART III.


SELECTIONS FOR READING.




PROSE.

INTRODUCTORY.


I. #The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.#

This famous work, a series of progressive annals by unknown hands,
embraces a period extending from Csar's invasion of England to 1154. It
is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in
English.

"The annals from the year 866--that of Ethelred's ascent of the
throne--to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single
year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space,
especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a
certain roundness and fulness, because the events--nearly all of them
episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes--are taken in
their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the
next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of nervous
severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and
suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely historical
prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language." (Ten Brink,
_Early Eng. Lit._,I.)


II. #The Translations of Alfred.#

Alfred's reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The _first_,
the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 881; the _second_,
the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893; the _third_, the
period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting),
from 893 to 897; the _fourth_, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His
literary work probably falls in the second period.[A]

The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were
(1)_Consolation of Philosophy_ (_DeConsolatione Philosophiae_) by
Bothius (475-525), (2)_Compendious History of the World_ (_Historiarum
Libri VII_) by Orosius (c.418), (3)_Ecclesiastical History of the
English_ (_Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_) by Bede (672-735),
and (4)_Pastoral Care_ (_DeCura Pastorali_) by Pope Gregory the Great
(540-604).

  The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That
  given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli.
  Wlker argues for an exact reversal of this order. According to
  Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1)_Orosius_, (2)_Bede_,
  (3) _Bothius_, and (4)_Pastoral Care_. The most recent
  contribution to the subject is from Wlfing, who contends for
  (1) _Bede_, (2)_Orosius_, (3)_Pastoral Care_, and (4)_Bothius_.

    [Footnote A: There is something inexpressibly touching in this
    clause from the great king's pen: gif w  stilnesse habba. He
    is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for
    the enlightenment of his people.]


I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN.

  [From the _Chronicle_, Parker MS. The event and date are
  significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex.
  Alfred's older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs
  the glory of the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (_Life of
  Alfred_) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying
  in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth "like a
  wild boar against the hounds."]

[[page 99]]

   1   871. Hr cum[1] s here t Radingum on Westseaxe,
   2 ond s ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas p. a gemtte he

[[page 100]]

   1 elwulf aldorman[2] on Englafelda, ond him :r wi gefeaht,
   2 ond sige nam. s ymb iiii niht ered cyning
   3 ond lfred his brur[3] :r micle fierd t Radingum
   4 gel:ddon, ond wi one here gefuhton; ond :r ws
   5 micel wl geslgen on gehwre hond, ond elwulf
   6 aldormon wear ofslgen; ond a Deniscan hton wlstwe
   7 gewald.

   8   Ond s ymb iiii niht gefeaht ered cyning ond
   9 lfred his brur wi alne[4] one here on scesdne.
  10 Ond he w:run[5] on tw:m gefylcum: on rum ws
  11 Bchsecg ond Halfdene  h:nan cyningas, ond on
  12 rum w:ron  eorlas. Ond  gefeaht s cyning
  13 ered wi ra cyninga getruman, ond :r wear s
  14 cyning Bgsecg ofslgen; ond lfred his brur wi
  15 ra eorla getruman, ond :r wear Sidroc eorl ofslgen
  16 s alda,[6] ond Sidroc eorl s gioncga,[7] ond sbearn eorl,
  17 ond Fr:na eorl, ond Hareld eorl; ond  hergas[8] bgen
  18 geflemde, ond fela senda ofslgenra, ond onfeohtende
  19 w:ron o niht.

  20   Ond s ymb xiiii niht gefeaht ered cyning ond
  21 lfred his brur wi one here t Basengum, ond :r
  22 a Deniscan sige nmon.

  23   Ond s ymb ii mna gefeaht ered cyning ond
  24 lfred his brur wi one here t Meretne, ond he
  25 w:run on tu:m[9] gefylcium, ond he bt geflemdon, ond
  26 longe on dg sige hton; ond :r wear micel wlsliht
  27 on gehwere hond; ond  Deniscan hton wlstwe

[[page 101]]

   1 gewald; ond r wear Hahmund bisceop ofslgen,
   2 ond fela gdra monna. Ond fter issum gefeohte cum[1]
   3 micel sumorlida.

   4   Ond s ofer astron gefr ered cyning; ond h
   5 rcsode v gar; ond his lc l t Wnburnan.

   6    fng lfred elwulfing his brur t Wesseaxna
   7 rce. Ond s ymb nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning
   8 wi alne[4] one here ly:tle werede[10] t Wiltne, ond hine
   9 longe on dg geflemde, ond  Deniscan hton wlstwe
  10 gewald.

  11   Ond s gares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wi
  12 one here on y: cynerce be san Temese, btan m e
  13 him lfred s cyninges brur ond nlpig aldormon[2] ond
  14 cyninges egnas oft rde onridon e mon n ne rmde;
  15 ond s gares w:run[5] ofslgene viiii eorlas ond n cyning.
  16 Ond y: gare nmon Westseaxe fri wi one here.

CONSULT GLOSSARY AND PARADIGMS UNDER FORMS GIVEN BELOW.

No note is made of such variants as y (y:) or i () for ie (e). See
Glossary under ie (e); occurrences, also, of #and# for #ond#, #land#
for #lond#, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such
words should be sought for under the more common forms, #ond#, #lond#.

    [1] = cwm.
    [2] = ealdormon.
    [3] = bror.
    [4] = ealne.
    [5] = w:ron.
    [6] = ealda.
    [7] = geonga.
    [8] = heras.
    [9] = tw:m.
    [10] = werode.

    [Linenotes:

    100.8. #gefeaht#. Notice that the singular is used. This is the
    more common construction in O.E. when a compound subject,
    composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. _For
    thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory_. See also
    p.107, note on #ws#.]  [[Linenote 107.14-15]]

    100.18. #ond fela senda ofslgenra#, _and there were many
    thousands of slain_ (91).

    101.12: #btan m e#, etc., _besides which, Alfred ... made
    raids against them_ (#him#), _which were not counted_. See 70,
    Note.]


II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED.

  [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation
  of Bothius's _Consolation of Philosophy_. Unfortunately, the only
  extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. Ifollow, therefore,
  Prof. A.S. Cook's normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See
  Cook's _First Book in Old English_, p.163.]

[[page 102]]

   1   Dryhten, lmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra
   2 gesceafta, ic bidde  for nre miclan mildheortnesse,
   3 and for :re hlgan rde tcne, and for Sanct Marian
   4 mghde, and for Sancti Michaeles gehersumnesse, and
   5 for ealra nra hlgena lufan and hera earnungum, t
   6  m gewissie bet onne ic worhte t ; and gewissa
   7 m t num willan, and t mnre swle earfe, bet onne
   8 ic self cunne; and gestaela mn md t inum willan and
   9 t mnre swle earfe; and gestranga m wi s dofles
  10 costnungum; and fierr fram m  flan glnesse and
  11 :lce unrihtwsnesse; and gescield m wi mnum wierwinnum,
  12 gesewenlcum and ungesewenlcum; and t:c m
  13 nne willan t wyrceanne; t ic mge  inweardlce
  14 lufian tforan eallum ingum, mid cl:num geance and
  15 mid cl:num lchaman. For on e  eart mn Scieppend,
  16 and mn Alesend, mn Fultum, mn Frfor, mn Trownes,
  17 and mn Thopa. Se  lof and wuldor n and
  18   , t worulde btan :ghwilcum ende. Amen.

    [Linenotes:

    3-4: #Marian ... Michaeles#. O.E. is inconsistent in the
    treatment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and
    sometimes retain in part their original inflections. #Marian#,
    an original accusative, is here used as a genitive; while
    #Michaeles# has the O.E. genitive ending.

    17: #Se  lof#. See  105, 1.]


III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN.

  [Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original
  insertion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius's _Compendious
  History of the World_.

  "They consist," says Ten Brink, "of a complete description of all
  the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred's
  time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which
  the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, aNorwegian
  named Ohthere, had quite circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia
  in his travels, and had even penetrated to the White Sea; the
  other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische Haff.
  The geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are
  exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and
  concrete."

  Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the
  western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into
  the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (#nmicela#). On his
  second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of
  Norway, entered the Skager Rack (#wds:#), passed through the
  Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (#tH:um#),
  modern Schleswig.

  Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days
  from Schleswig brought him to Drausen (#Trs#) on the shore of
  the Drausensea.]


[[page 103]]

#Ohthere's First Voyage.#

   1   there s:de his hlforde, lfrede cyninge, t h
   2 ealra Normonna normest bde. H cw t h bde
   3 on :m lande norweardum wi  Wests. H s:de
   4 ah t t land se swe lang nor onan; ac hit is
   5 eal wste, bton on fawum stwum styccemlum wcia
   6 Finnas, on huntoe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscae
   7 be :re s:. H s:de t h t sumum cirre wolde
   8 fandian h longe t land norryhte l:ge, oe hwer
   9 :nig mon be noran :m wstenne bde.  fr h
  10 norryhte be :m lande: lt him ealne weg t wste
  11 land on t storbord, ond  wds: on t bcbord re
  12 dagas.  ws h sw feor nor sw  hwlhuntan
  13 firrest fara.  fr h  get norryhte sw feor sw
  14 h meahte on :m rum rm dagum gesiglan.  bag
  15 t land :r astryhte, oe so s: in on t lond, h
  16 nysse hwer, bton h wisse t h :r bd westanwindes
  17 ond hwn noran, ond siglde  ast be lande
  18 sw sw h meahte on fower dagum gesiglan. 
  19 sceolde h :r bdan ryhtnoranwindes, for :m t
  20 land bag :r sryhte, oe so s: in on t land, h
  21 nysse hwer.  siglde h onan sryhte be lande

[[page 104]]

   1 sw sw h mehte[1] on ff dagum gesiglan.  lg :r
   2 n micel a p in on t land.  cirdon he p in on
   3  a, for :m he ne dorston for b :re a siglan for
   4 unfrie; for :m t land ws eall gebn on re healfe
   5 :re as. Ne mtte h :r nn gebn land, sian h
   6 from his gnum hm fr; ac him ws ealne weg wste
   7 land on t storbord, btan fiscerum ond fugelerum nd
   8 huntum, ond t w:ron eall Finnas; ond him ws 
   9 wds: on t bcbord.  Beormas hfdon swe wel
  10 gebd hira land: ac he ne dorston :r on cuman. Ac
  11 ra Terfinna land ws eal wste, bton :r huntan
  12 gewcodon, oe fisceras, oe fugeleras.

    [1] = meahte, mihte.

    [Linenotes:

    104.6: #from his gnum hm#. An adverbial dative singular
    without an inflectional ending is found with #hm#, #dg#,
    #morgen#, and #:fen#.

    104.8: #ond t w:ron#. See  40, Note 3.]

  13   Fela spella him s:don  Beormas :ger ge of hiera
  14 gnum lande ge of :m landum e ymb he tan w:ron;
  15 ac h nyste hwt s ses ws, for :m h hit self ne
  16 geseah.  Finnas, him hte, ond  Beormas spr:con
  17 nah n geode. Swost h fr ider, t acan s
  18 landes scawunge, for :m horshwlum, for :m he
  19 habba swe ele bn on hiora[2] tum-- t he brhton
  20 sume :m cyninge--ond hiora hy:d bi swe gd t
  21 sciprpum. S hwl bi micle l:ssa onne re hwalas:
  22 ne bi h lengra onne syfan[3] elna lang; ac on his gnum
  23 lande is s betsta hwlhunta:  bo eahta and fowertiges
  24 elna lange, and  m:stan fftiges elna lange;
  25 ra h s:de t h syxa sum ofslge syxtig on twm
  26 dagum.

    [2] = hiera.
    [3] = seofon.

    [Linenotes:

    104.15: #hwt s ses ws#. Sweet errs in explaining #ses#
    as attracted into the genitive by #s#. It is not a predicate
    adjective, but a partitive genitive after #hwt#.

    104.25: #syxa sum#. See  91, Note 2.]

[[page 105]]

   1   H ws swy:e spdig man on :m :htum e heora[2]
   2 spda on bo, t is, on wildrum. H hfde  gy:t, 
   3 h one cyningc[5] shte, tamra dora unbebohtra syx hund.
   4  dor h hta 'hrnas'; ra w:ron syx stlhrnas;
   5  bo swy:e dy:re mid Finnum, for :m hy: f 
   6 wildan hrnas mid. H ws mid :m fyrstum mannum
   7 on :m lande: nfde h ah m onne twntig hry:era,
   8 and twntig scapa, and twntig swy:na; and t ly:tle
   9 t h erede, h erede mid horsan.[4] Ac hyra r is m:st
  10 on :m gafole e  Finnas him gylda. t gafol bi
  11 on dora fellum, and on fugela feerum, and hwales bne,
  12 and on :m sciprpum e bo of hwles hy:de geworht
  13 and of soles. :ghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. S byrdesta
  14 sceall gyldan ffty:ne meares fell, and ff hrnes,
  15 and n beren fel, and ty:n ambra fera, and berenne kyrtel
  16 oe yterenne, and twgen sciprpas; :ger sy: syxtig
  17 elna lang, er sy: of hwles hy:de geworht, er of soles.[6]

    [2] = hiera.
    [4] = horsum.
    [5] = cyning.
    [6] = soles.

    [Linenote:

    105.2: #on bo#. See  94, (5).]

  18   H s:de t Normanna land w:re swy:e lang and
  19 swy:e sml. Eal t his man er oe ettan oe erian
  20 mg, t l wi  s:; and t is ah on sumum
  21 stwum swy:e cldig; and licga wilde mras wi astan
  22 and wi pp on emnlange :m by:num lande. On :m
  23 mrum eardia Finnas. And t by:ne land is asteweard
  24 brdost, and symle sw noror sw smlre. astewerd[7]
  25 hit mg bon[8] syxtig mla brd, oe hwne br:dre;
  26 and middeweard rtig oe brdre; and noreweard h
  27 cw, :r hit smalost w:re, t hit mihte bon rora
  28 mla brd t :m mre; and s mr syan,[9] on sumum

[[page 106]]

   1 stwum, sw brd sw man mg on twm wucum oferfran;
   2 and on sumum stwum sw brd sw man mg
   3 on syx dagum oferfran.

    [7] = -weard.
    [8] = bon.
    [9] = sian.

    [Linenote:

    105.19: #Eal t his man#. Pronominal genitives are not always
    possessive in O.E.; #his# is here the partitive genitive of
    #hit#, the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: _All that
    (portion) of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed or
    plowed_, etc. (70, Note).]

   4   onne is temnes :m lande seweardum, on re
   5 healfe s mres, Swoland, o t land noreweard;
   6 and temnes :m lande noreweardum, Cwna land. 
   7 Cwnas hergia hwlum on  Normen ofer one mr,
   8 hwlum  Normen on hy:. And :r sint swe micle
   9 meras fersce geond  mras; and bera  Cwnas hyra
  10 scypu ofer land on  meras, and anon hergia on 
  11 Normen; hy: habba swy:e ly:tle scypa and swy:e
  12 leohte.

    [Linenote:

    106.11-12: #scypa ... leohte#. These words exhibit inflections
    more frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms
    would be #scypu#, #leoht#; but in Late West Saxon the -u of
    short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a; and the
    nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by
    analogy, the masculine endings; #hwate#, #gde#, #hlge#,
    instead of #hwatu#, #gd#, #hlgu#.]


#Ohthere's Second Voyage.#

  13   hthere s:de t so[1] scr htte Hlgoland, e h on
  14 bde. H cw t nn man ne bde be noran him.
  15 onne is n port on seweardum :m lande, one man
  16 h:t Sciringeshal. yder h cw t man ne mihte
  17 geseglian on num mne, gyf man on niht wcode, and
  18 :lce dge hfde ambyrne wind; and ealle  hwle h
  19 sceal seglian be lande. And on t storbord him bi
  20 :rest raland, and onne  gland e synd betux ralande
  21 and issum lande. onne is is land, o h cym
  22 t Scirincgeshale, and ealne weg on t bcbord Norweg.

[[page 107]]

   1 Wi san one Sciringeshal fyl swy:e mycel
   2 s: p in on t land; so is brdre onne :nig man ofer
   3 son mge. And is Gotland on re healfe ongan, and
   4 sian Sillende. So s: l mnig[2] hund mla p in on
   5 t land.

    [1] = so.
    [2] = monig.

   6   And of Sciringeshale h cw t h seglode on ff
   7 dagan[3] t :m porte e mon h:t t H:um; s stent
   8 betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hy:r in
   9 on Dene.  h iderweard seglode fram Sciringeshale,
  10  ws him on t bcbord Denamearc and on
  11 t storbord wds: ry: dagas; and , twgen dagas :r
  12 h t H:um cme, him ws on t storbord Gotland,
  13 and Sillende, and glanda fela. On :m landum eardodon
  14 Engle, :r h hider on land cman.[4] And hym ws
  15  twgen dagas on t bcbord  gland e in on
  16 Denemearce hy:ra.

    [3] = dagum.
    [4] = cmen.

    [Linenotes:

    107.7: #t H:um#. "This pleonastic use of _t_ with names of
    places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the
    Chronicle (552), 'in :re stwe e is genemned t Searobyrg,'
    where the _t_ has been erased by some later hand, showing that
    the idiom had become obsolete. _Cp._ the German 'Gasthaus zur
    Krone,' Stamboul = _es tn plin_." (Sweet.) See, also,
    _Atterbury_, 28, Note3.

    107.14-15: #ws ...  gland#. The singular predicate is due
    again to inversion (p.100, note on #gefeaht# [[linenote
    100.8]]). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but
    frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf.
    _There is_, _Here is_, _There has been_, etc., with a (single)
    plural subject following.]


#Wulfstan's Voyage.#

  17   Wulfstn s:de t h gefre of H:um, t h w:re
  18 on Trs on syfan dagum and nihtum, t t scip ws
  19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonoland him ws

[[page 108]]

   1 on storbord, and on bcbord him ws Langaland, and
   2 L:land, and Falster, and Scng; and s land eall
   3 hy:ra t Denemearcan. And onne Burgenda land ws
   4 s on bcbord, and  habba him sylfe[1] cyning. onne
   5 fter Burgenda lande w:ron s s land,  synd htene
   6 :rest Blcinga-g, and More, and owland, and Gotland
   7 on bcbord; and s land hy:ra t Swom. And Weonodland
   8 ws s ealne weg on storbord o Wsleman.
   9 So Wsle is swy:e mycel a, and ho[2] tl Wtland and
  10 Weonodland; and t Wtland belimpe t Estum; and
  11 so Wsle l t of Weonodlande, and l in Estmere;
  12 and s Estmere is hru fftne[3] mla brd. onne cyme
  13 Ilfing astan in Estmere of m mere, e Trs stande
  14 in ste; and cuma t samod in Estmere, Ilfing astan
  15 of Estlande, and Wsle san of Winodlande. And
  16 onne benim Wsle Ilfing hire naman, and lige of :m
  17 mere west and nor on s:; for y: hit man h:t
  18 Wslema.

    [1] = selfe.
    [2] = ho.
    [3] = fftene.

    [Linenote:

    108.1-4: #him ... s#. Note the characteristic change of person,
    the transition from _indirect_ to _direct discourse_.]

  19   t Estland is swy:e mycel, and :r bi swy:e manig
  20 burh, and on :lcere byrig bi cyning. And :r bi
  21 swy:e mycel hunig, and fiscna; and s cyning and 
  22 rcostan men drinca my:ran meolc, and  unspdigan
  23 and  owan drinca medo.[4] :r bi swy:e mycel
  24 gewinn betwonan him. And ne bi :r n:nig ealo[5]
  25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac :r bi medo genh. And :r
  26 is mid Estum aw, onne :r bi man dad, t h l
  27 inne unforbrned mid his mgum and frondum mna,
  28 ge hwlum twgen; and  cyningas, and  re hahungene
  29 men, sw micle lencg[6] sw h mran spda
  30 habba, hwlum healf gar t h bo unforbrned, and

[[page 109]]

   1 licga bufan eoran on hyra hsum. And ealle  hwle
   2 e t lc bi inne, :r sceal bon gedrync and plega,
   3 o one dg e h hine forbrna. onne y: ylcan dge
   4 e h hine t :m de beran wylla, onne td:la h
   5 his feoh, t :r t lfe bi fter :m gedrynce and :m
   6 plegan, on ff oe syx, hwy:lum on m, sw sw s fos
   7 andfn bi. lecga hit onne forhwga on nre mle
   8 one m:stan d:l fram :m tne, onne erne, onne
   9 one riddan, o e hyt eall ld bi on :re nre mle;
  10 and sceall bon s l:sta d:l ny:hst :m tne e s dada
  11 man on li. onne sceolon[7] bon gesamnode ealle 
  12 menn e swyftoste hors habba on :m lande, forhwga
  13 on ff mlum oe on syx mlum fram :m fo. onne
  14 rna hy: ealle tweard :m fo: onne cyme s man
  15 s t swiftoste hors hafa t :m :restan d:le and t
  16 :m m:stan, and sw :lc fter rum, o hit bi eall
  17 genumen; and s nim one l:stan d:l s ny:hst :m
  18 tne t feoh gerne. And onne rde :lc hys weges
  19 mid :m fo, and hyt mtan[8] habban eall; and for y:
  20 :r bo  swiftan hors ungefge dy:re. And onne his
  21 gestron bo us eall spended, onne byr man hine t,
  22 and forbrne mid his w:pnum and hrgle; and swost

[[page 110]]

   1 ealle hys spda hy: forspenda mid :m langan legere
   2 s dadan mannes inne, and s e hy: be :m wegum
   3 lecga, e  fremdan t rna, and nima. And t
   4 is mid Estum aw t :r sceal :lces geodes man
   5 bon forbrned; and gyf r[9] man n bn finde unforbrned,
   6 h hit sceolan[7] miclum gebtan. And :r is mid
   7 Estum n m:g t h magon cyle gewyrcan; and y:
   8 :r licga  dadan men sw lange, and ne flia, t
   9 hy: wyrca one cyle him on. And ah man sette
  10 twgen f:tels full eala oe wteres, hy: ged t
  11 :ger bi oferfroren, sam hit sy: sumor sam winter.

    [4] = medu.
    [5] = ealu.
    [6] = leng.
    [7] = sculon.
    [8] = mton.
    [9] = :r.

    [Linenotes:

    109.2: #sceal#. See  137, Note 2 (2).

    109.7: #lecga hit#. Bosworth illustrates thus:

    vi    v     iv   iii    ii    i      1     2    3    4   5   6
    |     |     |     |     |     |      X
    |     |     |     |     |     |      XX    X    X
    |     |     |     |     |     |      XXX   XX   XX   X   X
    -------------------------------      XXXX  XXX  XXX  XX  XX  X
    _e_  _d_                             _c_   _b_              _a_
    Where the horsemen                 The six parts of the property
      assemble.                          placed within one mile.

    "The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at
    _d_ or _e_, and run towards _c_; the man who has the swiftest
    horse, coming first to 1 or _c_, takes the first and largest
    part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or
    _b_, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6or _a_, is
    taken."

    110.5-6: #man ... h#. Here the plural #h# refers to the
    singular #man#. _Cf._ p.109, ll.18-19, #:lc ... mtan#. In
    _Exodus_ xxxii, 24, we find "_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let
    _them_ break it off"; and Addison writes, "Ido not mean that I
    think _anyone_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health."
    The construction, though outlawed now, has been common in all
    periods of our language. Paul remarks (_Prinzipien der
    Sprachgeschichte_, 3d ed., 186) that "When a word is used as
    an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly
    speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since,
    however, in respect of the external form, aparticular number
    has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this
    is.... Hence a change of numbers is common in the different
    languages." Paul fails to observe that the change is always from
    singular to plural, not from plural to singular. See _Note on
    the Concord of Collectives and Indefinites_ (Anglia XI, 1901).
    See p.119, note on ll.19-21.]


IV. THE STORY OF CDMON.

  [From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede's _Ecclesiastical
  History_. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley,
  Tanner 10.Miller (_Early English Text Society_, No. 95,
  _Introd._) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that
  the original O.E.MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield
  (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed
  to the Latin original.

  "Cdmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we
  know who wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to
  embody in verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had
  brought into England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of
  lighter poetry, he came fresh to the work of Christianising
  English song. It was a great step to make. He built the chariot in
  which all the new religious emotions of England could now drive
  along." (Brooke, _The History of Early English Literature_,
  cap.XV.) There is no reason to doubt the historical existence of
  Cdmon; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, and
  was seven years old when Cdmon died (A.D. 680)].

[[page 111]]

   1   In ysse abbudissan mynstre ws sum bror syndriglce
   2 mid godcundre gife gem:red ond geweorad, for on
   3 he gewunade gerisenlce lo wyrcan,  e t :festnisse[1]
   4 ond t rfstnisse belumpon; sw tte sw hwt sw
   5 h of godcundum stafum urh bceras geleornode, t h
   6 fter medmiclum fce in scopgereorde mid  m:stan
   7 swtnisse ond inbryrdnisse geglengde, ond in Engliscgereorde
   8 wel geworht for brhte. Ond for his losongum

[[page 112]]

   1 monigra monna md oft to worulde forhogdnisse ond t
   2 geodnisse s heofonlcan lfes onbrnde w:ron. Ond
   3 ac swelce[2] monige re fter him in Ongelode ongunnon
   4 :feste lo wyrcan, ac n:nig hwre him t gelce
   5 dn ne meahte; for on h nls from monnum n urh
   6 mon gel:red ws t h one locrft leornade, ac h
   7 ws godcundlce gefultumod, ond urh Godes gife one
   8 songcrft onfng; ond h for on n:fre nht lasunge,
   9 n dles loes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne  n   t
  10 :festnisse[1] belumpon ond his  :festan tungan gedafenode
  11 singan.

    [1] = :fstnesse.
    [2] = swilce.

    [Linenotes:

    111.1: #ysse abbudissan.# The abbess referred to is the famous
    Hild, or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh,
    which, according to Bede, means "Bay of the Beacon." The Danes
    afterward gave it the name Whitby, or "White Town." The
    surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture England's first
    poet. "The natural scenery which surrounded him, the valley of
    the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great cliffs, the
    billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean,
    played incessantly upon him." (Brooke.)

    Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that
    the introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the
    vocabulary of O.E.: #abbudisse#, #mynster#, #bisceop#, #L:den#,
    #prost#, #stel#, #mancus#.

    112.4-5: The more usual order of words would be #ac n:nig,
    hwre, ne meahte t dn gelce him#.

    112.10-11: #ond his ... singan#, _and which it became his (the)
    pious tongue to sing_.]

  12   Ws h, s mon, in weoruldhde[3] geseted o  tde e
  13 h ws gely:fdre ylde, ond n:fre n:nig lo geleornade.
  14 Ond h for on oft in geborscipe, onne :r ws blisse
  15 intinga gedmed, t ho[4] ealle sceolden urh endebyrdnesse
  16 be hearpan singan, onne h geseah  hearpan him
  17 nalcan, onne rs h for scome from :m symble,
  18 ond hm ode t his hse.  h t  sumre tde
  19 dyde, t h forlt t hs s geborscipes, ond t ws

[[page 113]]

   1 gongende t nata scipene, ra heord him ws :re
   2 nihte beboden;  h  :r on gelimplcre tde his
   3 leomu[5] on reste gesette ond onslpte, a std him sum
   4 mon t urh swefn, ond hine hlette ond grtte, ond hine
   5 be his noman nemnde: "Cdmon, sing m hwthwugu."
   6  ondswarede h, ond cw: "Ne con ic nht singan;
   7 ond ic for on of yssum geborscipe t ode ond hider
   8 gewt, for on ic nht singan ne ce." Eft h cw s e
   9 wi hine sprecende ws: "Hwre  meaht m singan."
  10  cw h: "Hwt sceal ic singan?" Cw h: "Sing
  11 m frumsceaft."  h  s andsware onfng, 
  12 ongon h sna singan, in herenesse Godes Scyppendes,
  13  fers ond  word e h n:fre ne gehy:rde, ra endebyrdnes
  14 is is:

    [3] = woruldhde.
    [4] = he.
    [5] = limu.

    [Linenotes:

    112.14-15: #blisse intinga#, _for the sake of joy_; but the
    translator has confused _laetitiae caus_ (ablative) and
    _laetitiae causa_ (nominative). The proper form would be #for
    blisse# with omission of #intingan#, just as _for my sake_ is
    usually #for m#; _for his_ (_ortheir_) _sake_, #for him#. _Cf.
    Mark_ vi, 26: "Yet _for his oath's sake, and for their sakes
    which sat with him_, he would not reject her," #for :m e, ond
    for :m e him mid s:ton#. _For his sake_ is frequently #for his
    ingon# (#ingum#), rarely #for his intingan#. #ingon# is
    regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a
    person: _for my wife's sake_, #for mnes wfes ingon#
    (_Genesis_ xx,11), etc.

    112.18-19: #t ... t h forlt#. The substantival clause
    introduced by the second #t# amplifies by apposition the first
    #t#: _When he then, at a certain time_ (instrumental case,
    98, (2)), _did that, namely, when he left the house_. The
    better Mn.E. would be _this ... that_: "Added yet _this_ above
    all, _that_ he shut up John in prison" (_Luke_ iv,20).

    113.1-2: #ra ... beboden#. This does not mean that Cdmon was
    a herdsman, but that he served in turn as did the other secular
    attendants at the monastery.

    113.13-14: #ra endebyrdnes is is#. Bede writes _Hic est
    sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum_, and gives in Latin prose
    a translation of the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in
    which Cdmon wrote. The O.E. version given above is, of course,
    not the Northumbrian original (which, however, with some
    variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. of Bede's
    _History_), but a West Saxon version made also from the
    Northumbrian, not from the Latin.]

  15    N sculon herigean[6]   heofonrces Weard,
  16    Metodes meahte   ond his mdgeanc,
  17    weorc Wuldorfder,   sw h wundra gehws,
  18    ce Drihten   r onstealde.

[[page 114]]

   1    H :rest scop   eoran bearnum
   2    heofon t hrfe,   hlig Scyppend;
   3     middangeard   monncynnes Weard,
   4    ce Drihten,   fter tode
   5    frum foldan,   Fra lmihtig.

    [6] = herian.

    [Linenotes:

    113.15: #N sculon herigean#, _Now ought we to praise_. The
    subject #w# is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic
    use of synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry.
    Observe that it is not the _thought_ that is repeated, but
    rather the _idea_, the _concept_, God. See p.124.
    [[Poetry: Structure]]

    113.17: #wundra gehws#. See p.140, note on #cnra gehwylcum#
    [[_Beowulf_ 769]].]

   6    rs h from :m sl:pe, ond eal  e h sl:pende
   7 song fste in gemynde hfde; ond :m wordum sna
   8 monig word in t ilce gemet Gode wyres songes
   9 tgeodde.  cm h on morgenne t :m tngerfan,
  10 s e his ealdormon ws: sgde him hwylce gife h
  11 onfng; ond h hine sna t :re abbudissan gel:dde,
  12 ond hire t cy:de ond sgde.  heht ho gesomnian
  13 ealle  gel:redestan men ond  leorneras, ond him
  14 ondweardum ht secgan t swefn, ond t lo singan,
  15 t ealra heora[7] dme gecoren w:re, hwt oe hwonan
  16 t cumen w:re.  ws him eallum gesewen, sw sw
  17 hit ws, t him w:re from Drihtne sylfum heofonlc

[[page 115]]

   1 gifu forgifen.  rehton heo[4] him ond sgdon sum hlig
   2 spell ond godcundre lre word: bebudon him , gif h
   3  meahte, t h in swnsunge losonges t gehwyrfde.
   4  h  hfde  wsan onfongne,  ode h hm t
   5  his hse, ond cwm eft on morgenne, ond y: betstan
   6 loe geglenged him song ond geaf t him beboden
   7 ws.

    [4] = he.
    [7] = hiera.

    [Linenotes:

    114.7-9: #ond :m wordum ... tgeodde#, _and to those words he
    soon joined, in the same meter, many (other) words of song
    worthy of God_. But the translator has not only blundered over
    Bede's Latin (_eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna
    carminis adjunxit_), but sacrificed still more the idiom of
    O.E.The predicate should not come at the end; #in# should be
    followed by the dative; and for #Gode wyres songes# the better
    O.E. would be #songes Godes wyres#. When used with the dative
    #wyr# (#weor#) usually means _dear_ (=_of worth_) _to_.

    114.16: # ... gesewen#. We should expect #from him eallum#;
    but the translator has again closely followed the Latin
    (_visumque est omnibus_), as later (inthe _Conversion of
    Edwin_) he renders _Talis mihi videtur_ by #yslc m is
    gesewen#. _Talis_ (#yslc#) agreeing with a following _vita_
    (#lf#). lfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that
    John #wear  him# [= #from Drihtene#] #inweardlce gelufod#.
    It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the
    force of an adjective, the _to_ relation may supplant the _by_
    relation; just as we say _unknown to_ instead of _unknown by_,
    _unknown_ being more adjectival than participial. #Gesewen#,
    therefore, may here be translated _visible_, _evident_, _patent_
    (=#gesynelc#, #sweotol#); and #gelufod#, _dear_ (=#weor#,
    #lof#).

    A survival of adjectival #gesewen# is found in Wycliffe's _New
    Testament_ (1_Cor._ xv, 5-8): "He was _seyn to_ Cephas, and
    aftir these thingis _to_ enleuene; aftirward he was _seyn to_ mo
    than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he was _seyn
    to_ James, and aftirward _to_ alle the apostlis. And last of
    alle he was _seyn to_ me, as _to_ a deed borun child." The
    construction is frequent in Chaucer.]

   8    ongan so abbudisse clyppan ond lufigean[8]  Godes
   9 gife in :m men, ond ho hine  monade ond l:rde
  10 t h woruldhd forlte ond munuchd onfnge: ond
  11 h t wel afode. Ond ho hine in t mynster onfng
  12 mid his gdum, ond hine geodde t gesomnunge ra
  13 Godes owa, ond heht hine l:ran t getl s hlgan
  14 st:res ond spelles. Ond h eal  h in gehy:rnesse
  15 geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ond sw sw
  16 cl:ne nten[9] eodorcende in t swteste lo gehwyrfde.
  17 Ond his song ond his lo w:ron sw wynsumu t gehy:ranne,
  18 tte  seolfan[10] his lrowas t his me writon
  19 ond leornodon. Song h :rest be middangeardes gesceape,
  20 ond b fruman moncynnes, ond eal t st:r Genesis (t
  21 is so :reste Moyses bc); ond eft b tgonge Israhla
  22 folces of :gypta londe, ond b ingonge s gehtlandes;
  23 ond b rum monegum spellum s hlgan gewrites

[[page 116]]

   1 cannes bca; ond b Crstes menniscnesse, ond b his
   2 rwunge, ond b his pstgnesse in heofonas; ond b
   3 s Hlgan Gstes cyme, ond ra apostola lre; ond eft
   4 b :m dge s tweardan dmes, ond b fyrhtu s
   5 tintreglcan wtes, ond b swtnesse s heofonlcan rces,
   6 h monig lo geworhte; ond swelce[2] ac er monig be
   7 :m godcundan fremsumnessum ond dmum h geworhte.
   8 In eallum :m h geornlce gmde[11] t h men tuge
   9 from synna lufan ond mnd:da, ond t lufan ond t
  10 geornfulnesse wehte gdra d:da, for on h ws, s
  11 mon, swe :fest ond regollcum odscipum amdlce
  12 underoded; ond wi :m  e in re wsan dn woldon,
  13 h ws mid welme[12] micelre ellenwdnisse onbrned.
  14 Ond h for on fgre ende his lf bety:nde ond geendade.

    [2] = swilce.
    [8] = lufian.
    [9] = neten.
    [10] = selfan.
    [11] = gemde.
    [12] = wielme.

    [Linenotes:

    115.9-10: #ond ho hine  monade ... munuchd onfnge#. Hild's
    advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience, for
    she herself had lived half of her life (thirty-three years)
    "before," says Bede, "she dedicated the remaining half to our
    Lord in a monastic life."

    116.6: #h monig lo geworhte#. The opinion is now gaining
    ground that of these "many poems" only the short hymn, already
    given, has come down to us. Of other poems claimed for Cdmon,
    the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the
    fragmentary poetical paraphrase of _Genesis_.]


V. ALFRED'S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE.

  [Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the _Chronicle_ says:
  "In this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with
  very many monks, who gospelled [preached] God's word to the
  English folk." Gregory I, surnamed "The Great," has ever since
  been considered the apostle of English Christianity, and his
  _Pastoral Care_, which contains instruction in conduct and
  doctrine for all bishops, was a work that Alfred could not afford
  to leave untranslated. For this translation Alfred wrote a
  _Preface_, the historical value of which it would be hard to
  overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that
  the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for
  repairing that ruin.

  This _Preface_ and the _Battle of Ashdown_ (p.99) show the great
  king in his twofold character of warrior and statesman, and
  justify the inscription on the base of the statue erected to him
  in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his birth-place: "lfred found
  Learning dead, and he restored it; Education neglected, and he
  revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church
  debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a fearful Enemy,
  from which he delivered it. lfred's name will live as long as
  mankind shall respect the Past."]

[[page 117]]

   1   lfred kyning hte grtan Wrfer biscep[1] his wordum
   2 luflce ond frondlce; ond  cy:an hte t m cm
   3 swe oft on gemynd, hwelce[2] witan u[3] w:ron giond[4]
   4 Angelcynn, :ger ge godcundra hda ge woruldcundra;
   5 ond h ges:liglca tda  w:ron giond Angelcynn; ond
   6 h  kyningas e one onwald hfdon s folces on
   7 m dagum Gode ond his :rendwrecum hrsumedon[5];
   8 ond h he :ger ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo[6] ge hiora
   9 onweald innanbordes geholdon,[4] ond ac t hiora el
  10 gery:mdon; ond h him  spow :ger ge mid wge ge
  11 mid wsdme; ond ac a godcundan hdas h giorne
  12 he w:ron :ger ge ymb lre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb
  13 ealle  owotdmas e he Gode dn scoldon; ond h
  14 man tanbordes wsdm ond lre hieder on lond shte,
  15 ond h w he n sceoldon te begietan, gif w he habban
  16 sceoldon. Sw:[7] cl:ne ho ws ofeallenu on Angelcynne
  17 t swe fawa w:ron behionan Humbre e hiora ninga
  18 cen understondan on Englisc oe furum n :rendgewrit
  19 of L:dene on Englisc reccean; ond ic wne tte
  20 nht monige begiondan Humbre n:ren. Sw:[7] fawa
  21 hiora w:ron t ic furum nne nlpne[8] ne mg geencean

[[page 118]]

   1 be san Temese,   ic t rce fng. Gode lmihtegum
   2 se onc tte w n :nigne onstl habba
   3 lrowa. Ond for on ic  bebode t  d sw:[7] ic
   4 gelefe t  wille, t   issa woruldinga t :m
   5  ge:metige, sw:  oftost mge, t  one wsdm e
   6  God sealde :r :r  hiene befstan mge, befste.
   7 Geenc hwelc[9] wtu s  becmon for isse worulde, 
   8  w hit nhwer n selfe ne lufodon, n ac rum
   9 monnum ne lfdon[10]: one naman nne w lufodon tte
  10 w Crstne w:ren, ond swe fawe  awas.

    [1] = bisceop.
    [2] = hwilce.
    [3] = gu.
    [4] = For all words with _io_ (_o_), consult Glossary under
          _eo_ (_o_).
    [5] = hersumedon.
    [6] = sidu (siodu).
    [7] = sw.
    [8] = nlpigne.
    [9] = hwilc.
    [10] = lefdon.

    [Linenotes:

    117.1-2: #lfred kyning hte ... hte#. Note the change from
    the formal and official third person (#hte#) to the more
    familiar first person (#hte#). So lfric, in his _Preface to
    Genesis_, writes #lfric munuc grt elwrd ealdormann
    admdlce.  b:de m, lof, t ic#, etc.: _lfric, monk,
    greets thelweard, alderman, humbly. Thou, beloved, didst bid me
    that I_, etc.

    118.5: Notice that #mge# (l.5) and #mge# (l.6) are not in
    the subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they
    have been attracted by #g:metige# and #befste#. #Sen# (p.119,
    l.15) and #hbben# (p.119, l.20) illustrate the same
    construction.

    118.9-10: _We liked only the reputation of being Christians,
    very few_ (_ofus_) _the Christian virtues_.]

  11    ic  is eall gemunde,  gemunde ic ac h ic
  12 geseah, :r :m e hit eall forhergod w:re ond forbrned,
  13 h  ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stdon
  14 mma ond bca gefylda, ond ac micel menigeo[11] Godes
  15 owa; ond  swe ly:tle fiorme ra bca wiston, for
  16 :m e he hiora nnwuht[12] ongietan ne meahton, for
  17 :m e he n:ron on hiora gen geode awritene.
  18 Swelce[13] he cw:den: "Ure ieldran,  e s stwa :r
  19 holdon, he lufodon wsdm, ond urh one he begaton
  20 welan, ond s l:fdon. Hr mon mg get geson hiora
  21 sw, ac w him ne cunnon fter spyrigean,[14] ond for
  22 :m w habba n :ger forl:ten ge one welan ge one
  23 wsdm, for :m e w noldon t :m spore mid re
  24 mde onltan."

    [11] = menigu.
    [12] = nnwiht.
    [13] = swilce.
    [14] = spyrian.

  25    ic  is eall gemunde,  wundrade ic swe swe
  26 ra gdena wiotona[15] e gu w:ron giond Angelcynn, ond
  27  bc ealla be fullan geliornod hfdon, t he hiora 

[[page 119]]

   1 n:nne d:l noldon on hiora gen geode wendan. Ac
   2 ic  sna eft m selfum andwyrde, ond cw: "He ne
   3 wndon tte :fre menn sceolden sw:[7] reccelase weoran,
   4 ond so lr sw: ofeallan; for :re wilnunga he
   5 hit forlton, ond woldon t hr y: mra wsdm on
   6 londe w:re y: w m geoda con."

    [7] = sw.
    [15] = witena.

   7    gemunde ic h so : ws :rest on Ebrisc geode
   8 funden, ond eft,  he Cracas geliornodon,  wendon
   9 he he on hiora gen geode ealle, ond ac ealle re
  10 bc. Ond eft L:denware sw: same, sian he he geliornodon,
  11 he he wendon ealla urh wse wealhstdas
  12 on hiora gen geode. Ond ac ealla ra Crstena
  13 oda sumne d:l hiora on hiora gen geode wendon.
  14 For y: m ync betre, gif ow sw: ync, t w ac
  15 suma bc,  e nedbeearfosta sen eallum monnum
  16 t wiotonne,[16] t w  on t geode wenden e w
  17 ealle gecnwan mgen, ond gedn sw: w swe ae
  18 magon mid Godes fultume, gif w  stilnesse habba,
  19 tte eall so giogu e n is on Angelcynne friora
  20 monna, ra e  spda hbben t he :m befolan
  21 mgen, sen t liornunga ofste,  hwle e he t

[[page 120]]

   1 nnre erre note ne mgen, o one first e he wel
   2 cunnen Englisc gewrit r:dan: l:re mon sian furur
   3 on L:dengeode  e mon furor l:ran wille, ond t
   4 herran hde dn wille.  ic  gemunde h so lr
   5 L:dengeodes :r issum feallen ws giond Angelcynn,
   6 ond eah monige con Englisc gewrit r:dan, 
   7 ongan ic ongemang orum mislcum ond manigfealdum
   8 bisgum isses kynerces  bc wendan on Englisc e is
   9 genemned on L:den "Pastoralis," ond on Englisc "Hierdebc,"
  10 hwlum word be worde, hwlum andgit of andgiete,
  11 sw: sw: ic he geliornode t Plegmunde mnum
  12 rcebiscepe, ond t Assere mnum biscepe, ond t Grimbolde
  13 mnum msseproste, ond t Ihanne mnum msseproste.
  14 Sian ic he  geliornod hfde, sw: sw:
  15 ic he forstd, ond sw: ic he andgitfullcost reccean
  16 meahte, ic he on Englisc wende; ond t :lcum biscepstle
  17 on mnum rce wille ne onsendan; ond on :lcre
  18 bi n stel, s bi on fftegum mancessa. Ond ic bebode
  19 on Godes naman t nn mon one stel from
  20 :re bc ne d, n  bc from :m mynstre; unc h
  21 longe :r sw: gel:rede biscepas sen, sw: sw: n, Gode
  22 onc, wel hw:r siendon. For y: ic wolde tte he ealneg

[[page 121]]

  1 t :re stwe w:ren, bton s biscep he mid him
  2 habban wille, oe ho hw:r t l:ne se, oe hw re
  3 b wrte.

    [16] = witanne.

    [Linenotes:

    119.14: Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and
    hence uses the plural #ow# (=#ow#), not ##.

    119.16: #t w #. These three words are not necessary to the
    sense. They constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which
    "the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more
    intervening words." ## is the pronominal substitute for #suma
    bc#.

    119.17: #Gedn# is the first person plural subjunctive (from
    infinitive #gedn#). It and #wenden# are in the same
    construction. Two things seem "better" to Alfred: (1)_that we
    translate_, etc., (2)_that we cause_, etc.

    119.19-21: #so giogu ... is ... he ... sen#. Notice how the
    collective noun, #giogu#, singular at first both in form and
    function, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the
    sentence is reached, and becomes plural. The construction is
    entirely legitimate in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language
    known to me that condemns such an idiom: "Spanish ideas of
    congruity do not permit a collective noun, though denoting a
    plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in
    the same clause" (Ramsey, _Text-Book of Modern Spanish_,
    1452).

    120.2: #l:re mon#. See  105, 1.

    120.11-13: That none of these advisers of the king, except
    Plegmond, aMercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says
    about the scarcity of learned men in England when he began to
    reign. Asser, to whose Latin _Life of Alfred_, in spite of its
    mutilations, we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king,
    came from St. David's (inWales), and was made Bishop of
    Sherborne.

    121.1: Translate #:t :re stwe# by _each in its place_. The
    change from plural #he# (in#he ... w:ren#) to singular #he#
    (inthe clauses that follow) will thus be prepared for.

    121.2-3: #oe hw re b wrte#, _or unless some one wish to
    copy a new one_ (_write thereby another_).]




POETRY.

INTRODUCTORY.

  [Transcriber's Note:

  In Section II., Structure, the stress markers  and ` are intended
  to display above the macron () or breve (u or [)]). In this
  simplified Latin-1 text, they are shown before (to the left of) the
  macron:

      `

  "Resolved stress" (two short syllables acting as one long) is shown
  with braces:

    {u }

  Where there is no risk of ambiguity, the breve is shown as the
  letter u; elsewhere it is shown in brackets as [)].]


I. HISTORY.

(a) #Old English Poetry as a Whole.#

Northumbria was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Cdmon
and his school A.D. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy
till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes
had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes
had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria.
As Whitby had been "the cradle of English poetry," Winchester (Alfred's
capital) became now the cradle of English prose; and the older poems
that had survived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from
the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is,
therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems[1] have come down
tous.

Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; but
it includes epic, lyric, didactic, elegiac, and allegorical poems,
together with war-ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five
elegiac poems (_Wanderer_, _Seafarer_, _Ruin_, _Wife's Complaint_, and
_Husband's Message_), the _Wanderer_ is the most artistic, and best
portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so
characteristic of the Old English lyric.

Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its
poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the
part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is
usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional
particles, or connectives, "which," says Ten Brink, "are the cement of
sentence-structure."


(b) #Beowulf.#

The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, _Beowulf_.[2] It
consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed
approximately its present form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a
crystallization of continental myths; and, though nothing is said of
England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and
ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled
along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is
historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains.
The fatalism that runs through it, instead of making the characters weak
and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them.
"Fate," says Beowulf (l.572), recounting his battle with the
sea-monsters, "often saves an undoomed man _if his courage hold out_."

"The ethical essence of this poetry," says Ten Brink, "lies principally
in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical
encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to
help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his
thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him."

  NOTE 1.--Many different interpretations have been put upon the
  story of _Beowulf_ (for argument of story, see texts). Thus
  Mllenhoff sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed
  equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who
  in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner
  finds the prototype of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that
  rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months;
  Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates
  the effluvia.

    [Footnote 1: This does not, of course, include the few short
    poems in the _Chronicle_, or that portion of _Genesis_
    (_GenesisB_) supposed to have been put directly into West Saxon
    from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian
    the version of _Cdmon's Hymn_, fragments of the _Ruthwell
    Cross_, _Bede's Death-Song_, and the _Leiden Riddle_.]

    [Footnote 2: The word _bowulf_, says Grimm, meant originally
    _bee-wolf_, or _bee-enemy_, one of the names of the woodpecker.
    Sweet thinks the bear was meant. But the word is almost
    certainly a compound of _Bow_ (cf.O.E. #bow# = grain),
    aDanish demigod, and _wulf_ used as a mere suffix.]


II. STRUCTURE.

(a) #Style.#

In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature
is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a
corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the
Queen passes into the banquet hall in _Beowulf_, she is designated at
first by her name, #Wealhow#; she is then described in turn as #cwn
Hrgres# (_Hrothgar's queen_), #gold-hroden# (_the gold-adorned_),
#frolc wf# (_the noble woman_), #ides Helminga# (_the Helmings'
lady_), #bag-hroden cwn# (_the ring-adorned queen_), #mde geungen#
(_the high-spirited_), and #gold-hroden frolcu folc-cwn# (_the
gold-adorned, noble folk-queen_).

And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet's verse, not content
with simple (uncompounded) words (such as #s:#, #lagu#, #holm#,
#stram#, #mere#, etc.), he will use numerous other equivalents (phrases
or compounds), such as #waema gebind# (_the commingling of waves_),
#lagu-fld# (_the sea-flood_), #lagu-str:t# (_the sea-street_),
#swan-rd# (_the swan-road_), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or
adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than
attributive.

It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or
periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in
varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets
rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or
clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a
parallelism of structure.

  NOTE 1.--It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous
  expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like
  many of the epithets in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, purely as
  padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most
  critical moment Beowulf's sword failed him, adding in the same
  breath, #ren :r-gd# (_matchless blade_), we conclude that the
  bard is either nodding or parroting.


(b) #Meter.#

[Re-read  10, (3).]

_Primary Stress._

Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered
combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable
(the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with
the acute accent over it (); when short, by the breve with the same
accent (u). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be
long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross ().

_Secondary Stress._

A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of
compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be
indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress
falls on a long syllable (`); by the breve with the same accent, if the
secondary stress falls on a short syllable (`u).

Nouns:

  Hrgres ( ` ), fondgrpum ( ` ), from:gum ( ` ),
  ast-Dena ( `u ), Helminga ( ` ), Scyldinga ( ` ),
  nhaga ( `u ), Ecgowes ( ` ), sinc-fato ( `u ).

Adjectives:[1]

  :ghwylcne ( ` ), rsthy:dig ( ` ), gold-hroden ( `u ),
  drorigne ( ` ), gyldenne ( ` ), erne ( ` ),
  g:stlcum ( ` ), wynsume ( `u ), :nigne ( ` ).

Adverbs:[2]

  unsfte ( ` ), heardlce ( ` ), semninga ( ` ).

The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of
present participles (#-ende#), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of
the second class (130), provided the root-syllable is long.[3]

Present participles:

  sl:pendne ( ` ), ws-hycgende (  ` ), flotendra ( ` ),
  hrosende ( ` ).

Weak verbs:

  swynsode ( `u ), ancode ( `u ), wnigean ( `u ),
  scawian ( `u ), scawige ( `u ), hlfian ( `u ).

    [Footnote 1: It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly
    derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -lc, and -sum.]

    [Footnote 2: Most of the adverbs belonging here end in #-lce#,
    #-unga#, and #-inga#, 93, (1), (2): such words as #t-g[]dere#,
    #on-g[]an#, #on-wg#, #t-g[]anes#, #t-mddes#, etc., are
    invariably accented as here indicated.]

    [Footnote 3: It will save the student some trouble to remember
    that this means long by nature (#lcodon#), or long by position
    (#swynsode#), or long by resolution of stress (#maelode#),--see
    next paragraph.]


_Resolved Stress._

A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented
syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented
syllable (u  =). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be
indicated thus, {u };

  hlea ({u }), guman ({u }), Gode ({u }), sele-ful ({u }),
  ides ({u }), fyrena ({u }), maelode ({u }`u ),
  hogode ({u }), mgen-ellen ({u }` ),
  hige-ihtigne ({u } ` ), Metudes ({u }),
  lagulde ({u }` ), unlyfigendes ({u }` ),
  biforan ({u }), forolian ({u }), baian ({u }),
  worolde ({u } ).

Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses:

  sinc-fato ( {`u }), dryht-sele ( {`u }), ferloca ( {`u }),
  forwege ( {`u }).


_The Normal Line._

Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in
the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines
are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative
letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second
half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of
the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second
half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating
syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two
in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one
alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the
second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency:

  (1) :r ws _h_[]lea _h_lahtor; _h_l[y]n sw[y]nsode.
  (2) _m_[]de gengen, _m_do-ful tb[]r.
  (3) s[]na t on_f_nde _f_[y]rena h[y]rde.

Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial
vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except
st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself.

Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may
begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in
types A, D, and E as the _anacrusis_), but that neither half-line can
end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at
once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be
found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but
that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that
are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense.

When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what
word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and
then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief
burden of the poet's thought.

  NOTE 1.--A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or
  lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read,
  there is one line with no alliteration: _Wanderer_ 58; three of
  the type _a  b_ | _a  b_: _Beowulf_ 654, 830, 2746; one of
  the type _a  a_ | _b  a_: _Beowulf_ 2744; one of the type _a
   a_ | _b  c_: _Beowulf_ 2718; and one of the type _a  b_
  | _c  a_: _Beowulf_ 2738.


_The Five Types._

By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English
verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,[4] of the University of
Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties,
employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving
to separate the so-called feet, or measures:

  1.  A    |  

  2.  B    |  

  3.  C    |  

  4.  D { D^1   |  ` 
        { D^2   |   `

  5.  E { E^1   `  | 
        { E^2    ` | 

It will be seen (1)that each half-line contains two, and only two,
feet; (2)that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress;
(3)that A is trochaic, Biambic; (4)that C is iambic-trochaic;
(5)that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order.

    [Footnote 4: Sievers' two articles appeared in the _Beitrge zur
    Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, Vols. X(1885)
    and XII (1887). Abrief summary, with slight modifications, is
    found in the same author's _Altgermanische Metrik_, pp.120-144
    (1893).

    Before attempting to employ Sievers' types, the student would do
    well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to
    accentuate according to the principles already laid down. In
    this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the
    line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers' work was one
    primarily of systematization. Sievers himself says: "Ihad read
    Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long
    before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively
    could be formulated into a system of set rules."
    (_Altgermanische Metrik_, _Vorwort_, p.10.)]


_The Five Types Illustrated._

  [[Transcriber's Note: In the printed book, all examples line up
  vertically at the main |.]]

  [All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to
  be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second
  half-line is cited. B= _Beowulf_; W = _Wanderer_.]

1. TYPE A,   |  

Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between
the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis
in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course,
asecondary stress.

  (2) ful gesealde, B. 616,                        |  
  (1) wdre gewindan, B. 764,                     |  
  (1)[5] Gemunde  s gda, B. 759       |     |  
  (1)[5] swylce h on ealder-dagum, B. 758,      |   | u 
  (1) y:de sw isne eardgeard, W. 85,          | `
  (1) ws-fst wordum, B. 627,                    ` |  
  (1) gryre-lo galan, B. 787,                 {u } ` | u 
  (2) somod tgdre, W. 39,                     {u }  |  
  (1) dugue ond geogoe, B. 622,            {u }   | {u } 
  (1) f:ger fold-bold, B. 774,                     | `
  (1) atelc egesa, B. 785,                     {u } ` | {u } 
  (2) goldwine mnne, W. 22,                     {`u } |  
  (1) egesan on [> *han:  118], B. 2737,   {u }  |  

  NOTE.--Rare forms of A are  `  |   (does not occur in
  texts),  `  |  ` (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and   ` |
    (once, B. 2743(1)).

    [Footnote 5: The first perpendicular marks the limit of the
    anacrusis.]

2. TYPE B,   |  

Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between
the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is    |  .

  (1) ond  frolc wf, B. 616,                     |  
  (2) h on lust geeah, B. 619,                      | נ
  (2)  se eling gong, B. 2716,                {u } | נ
  (2) seah on enta geweorc, B. 2718,                  |  נ
  (1) ofer flda genipu, B. 2809,                     |   {u }
  (1) foram m wtan ne earf, B. 2742,             |  נ
  (2) aes e hire se willa gelamp, B. 627,        |  נ
  (1) foron ne mg weoran ws, W. 64,             | נ
  (1) N:fre ic :negum [= :n'gum] men, B. 656,        | נ

  NOTE.--In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form
  #:ngum#, and supposes elision of the e in #N:fre# (= #N:fr-ic#:
  ״|״).

3. TYPE C,   |  

The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and
derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is
frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in
B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than
one.

  (1) t ho on :nigne, B. 628,            |  
  (1) t ic nunga, B. 635,                 |  
  (2) ode gold-hroden, B. 641,              | u 
  (1) gemyne m:ro, B. 660,                {u } |  
  (1) on isse meodu-healle, B. 639,     {u } |  
  (2) t brimes nosan, B. 2804,            {u } | u 
  (2) t Wealhon [= -owan], B. 630,       |  
  (1) geond lagulde, W. 3,                {u } |  
  (1) Sw cw eardstapa, W. 6,              | u 
  (2) al byrnwiga, W. 94,                  | u 
  (2) n :r fela bringe, W. 54,         {u } |  

4. TYPE D, { D^1  |  ` 
           { D^2  |   `

Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary
stresses ( |  ` ,   |  נ`). The secondary stress in D^1
falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word,
and this syllable (asinC) is frequently short.

(a) D^1  |  ` 

  (1) cwn Hrgres, B. 614,                     |  ` 
  (2) d:l :ghwylcne, B. 622,                      |  ` 
  (1) Bowulf maelode, B. 632,                  | {u } `u 
  (2) slt unwearnum, B. 742,                     |  ` 
  (1) wrra wlsleahta, W. 7,                   |  ` 
  (1) wd wintercearig [= wint'rcearig], W. 24,   |  `u 
  (1) shte sele drorig, W. 25,                 | {u } ` 
  (1) ne shte searo-nas, B. 2739,        |   | {u } ` 

  NOTE.--There is one instance in the texts (B.613, (1)) of
  apparent    |  `u : #word w:ron wynsume#. (The triple
  alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes
  our stressing #w:ron#.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the
  line under the A type:    |  {u }.

(b) D^2  |   `

  (2) For nar tstp, B. 746,         |   `
  (2) eorl furur stp, B. 762,         |   `
  (2) Denum eallum wear, B. 768,    {u } |   `
  (1) grtte Gata lod, B. 626,       |   `
  (1) :nig yrfe-weard, B. 2732,        |   `
  (1) hrosan hrm and snw, W. 48,    |   `
  (2) swimma eft on weg, W. 53,       |  נ`

Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded.

  (2) egn ungemete till, B. 2722,       |    נ`
  (1) hrsan heolster biwrh, W. 23,    |    `

5. TYPE E, {E^1  `  | 
           {E^2   ` | 

The secondary stress in E^1 falls frequently on a short syllable, as in
D^1.

(a) E^1  `  | 

  (1) wyrmlcum fh, W. 98,        `  | 
  (2) medo-ful tbr, B. 625,   {u } `u  | 
  (1) s:-bt gest, B. 634,        `  | 
  (1) sige-folca swg, B. 645,  {u } `  | 
  (2) Nor-Denum std, B. 784,    `u  | 
  (1) fond-grpum fst, B. 637,   `  | 
  (2) wyn eal gedras, W. 36,      `  | 
  (2) feor oft gemon, W. 90,       `  | 

As in D^2, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded.

  (1) wn-rnes geweald, B. 655,         `   | 
  (1) Hafa n ond geheald, B. 659,    {u } `   | 
  (1) searo-oncum besmiod, B. 776,  {u } `   | {u }

  NOTE.--Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it
  impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases
  between D^2 and E^1. For example, in these half-lines (already
  cited),

    wyn eal gedras
    feor oft gemon
    For nar tstp

  if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their
  verbs, the type is D^2. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and
  increase it on the verbs, and we have E^1. The position of the
  adverbs furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English
  was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but
  by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well.

(_b_) E^2   ` | 

This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there
being but one instance of this type (l.2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in
the whole of _Beowulf_.

_Abnormal Lines._

The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are
comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes,
(1)hypermetrical lines, and (2)defective lines.

(1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES.

Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six
stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in
groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the
half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without
anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the _Wanderer_.
Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The
first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, afusion of A and C, consisting
of (  {u }| ).

(2) DEFECTIVE LINES.

The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second
half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be
scanned thus:

  r:hte ongan        |  
  bealo-n woll  {u } ` | 

Sievers emends as follows:

  r:hte tganes        |    = A
  bealo-ne woll  {u }   |     = E^1

These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found
on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in
poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed,
in favor of the adequacy of Sievers' five-fold classification.

  NOTE.--All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty
  to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under
  the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find
  it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain.




SELECTIONS FOR READING.


VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF.

THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.]

  [The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. Ihave attempted
  no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin
  edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wlker text seemed to give
  the better reading.

  The argument preceding the first selection is as follows:
  Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity,
  builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers; but a
  monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night
  after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting
  hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf,
  nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (apeople of South Sweden),
  sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his
  services to the aged Hrothgar. "Leave me alone in the hall
  to-night," says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf's proffered aid,
  and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent
  in wassail. The banquet scene follows.]


  :r ws hlea hleahtor,   hlyn swynsode,
  word w:ron wynsume.   ode Wealhow for,
  cwn Hrgres,   cynna gemyndig;
  grtte gold-hroden   guman on healle,                        [615]
  ond  frolc wf   ful gesealde
  :rest ast-Dena   el-wearde,
  bd hine blne   t :re bor-ege,
  lodum lofne;   h on lust geeah
  symbel ond sele-ful,   sige-rf kyning.                      [620]
  Ymb-ode    ides Helminga
  dugue ond geogoe   d:l :ghwylcne,
  sinc-fato sealde,   o t s:l lamp
  t ho[1] Bowulfe,   bag-hroden cwn,
  mde geungen,   medo[2]-ful tbr;                          [625]
  grtte Gata lod,   Gode ancode
  ws-fst wordum,   s e hire se willa gelamp,
  t ho on :nigne   eorl gely:fde
  fyrena frfre.   H t ful geeah,
  wl-row wiga,   t Wealhon,                               [630]
  ond  gyddode   ge gefy:sed;
  Bowulf maelode,   bearn Ecgowes:
  "Ic t hogode,    ic on holm gesth,
  s:-bt gest   mid mnra secga gedriht,
  t ic nunga   owra loda                                  [635]
  willan geworhte,   oe on wl crunge
  fond-grpum fst.   Ic gefremman sceal
  eorlc ellen,   oe ende-dg
  on isse meodu[2]-healle   mnne gebdan."
  m wfe  word   wel lcodon,                              [640]
  gilp-cwide Gates;   ode gold-hroden
  frolicu folc-cwn   t hire fran sittan.
   ws eft sw :r   inne on healle
  ry:-word sprecen,[3]   od on s:lum,
  sige-folca swg,    o t semninga                          [645]
  sunu Healfdenes   scean wolde
  :fen-rste;   wiste :m hl:can[4]
  t :m hah-sele   hilde geinged,
  sian he sunnan loht   geson _ne_ meahton
  oe npende   niht ofer ealle,                              [650]
  scadu-helma gesceapu   scran cwman,[5]
  wan under wolcnum.   Werod eall rs;
  grtte  _giddum_   guma erne
  Hrgr Bowulf,   ond him h:l bad,
  wn-rnes geweald,   ond t word cw:                     [655]
  "N:fre ic :negum[6] men   :r ly:fde,
  sian ic hond ond rond   hebban mihte,
  ry:-rn Dena   bton  n .
  Hafa n ond geheald   hsa slest,
  gemyne m:ro,[7]   mgen-ellen cy:,                          [660]
  waca wi wrum.   Ne bi  wilna gd,
  gif  t ellen-weorc   aldre[8] gedgest."

    [1] = ho.
    [2] = medu-.
    [3] = gesprecen.
    [4] = gl:can.
    [5] = cwmon.
    [6] = :nigum.
    [7] = m:re (acc. sing.).
    [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.).

    [Linenotes:

    623: #sinc-fato sealde#. Banning (_Die epischen Formeln im
    Beowulf_) shows that the usual translation, _gave costly gifts_,
    must be given up; or, at least, that the _costly gifts_ are
    nothing more than _beakers of mead_. The expression is an epic
    formula for _passing the cup_.

    638-39: #ende-g ... mnne#. This unnatural separation of
    noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost
    unknown in prose.

    641-42: #ode ... sittan#. The poet might have employed #t
    sittanne# (108, (1)); but in poetry the infinitive is often
    used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the
    gerund to express purpose after #gn#, #gongan#, #cuman#, and
    #sendan#.

    647-51: #wiste ... cwman#. A difficult passage, even with
    Thorpe's inserted #ne#; but there is no need of putting a period
    after #geinged#, or of translating #oe# by _and_: _He
    (Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store_ (#geinged#) _for the
    monster in the high hall, after_ [= _as soon as_] _they could no
    longer see the sun's light, or_ [= _that is_] _after night came
    darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking_. The subject
    of #cwman# [= #cwmon#] is #niht# and #gesceapu#.

    The student will note that the infinitive (#scran#) is here
    employed as a present participle after a verb of motion
    (#cwman#). This construction with #cuman# is frequent in prose
    and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion: #ic cm
    drfan# = _I came driving_.]


THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.]

  [The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel
  stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams "aluster
  unlovely, likest to fire." The combat begins at once.]

  Ne t se gl:ca   yldan hte,                              [740]
  ac h gefng hrae   forman se
  sl:pendne rinc,   slt unwearnum,
  bt bn-locan,   bld drum dranc,
  syn-sn:dum swealh;   sna hfde
  unlyfigendes   eal gefeormod                                 [745]
  ft ond folma.   For nar tstp,
  nam  mid handa   hige-ihtigne
  rinc on rste;   r:hte ongan
  fond mid folme;   h onfng hrae
  inwit-ancum   ond wi earm gest.                           [750]
  Sna t onfunde   fyrena hyrde,
  t h ne mtte   middan-geardes,
  eoran scatta,   on elran men
  mund-gripe mran;   h on mde wear
  forht, on ferhe;   n y: :r fram meahte.                    [755]
  Hyge ws him hin-fs,   wolde on heolster flon,
  scan dofla gedrg;   ne ws his drohto :r,
  swylce h on ealder[1]-dagum   :r gemtte.
  Gemunde  se gda   m:g Higelces
  :fen-spr:ce,   p-lang std                                 [760]
  ond him fste wifng;   fingras burston;
  eoten ws t-weard;   eorl furur stp.
  Mynte se m:ra,   hw:r h meahte sw,
  wdre gewindan   ond on weg anon
  flon on fen-hopu;   wiste his fingra geweald                [765]
  on grames grpum.   t ws gocor s,
  t se hearm-scaa   t Heorute[2] tah.
  Dryht-sele dynede;   Denum eallum wear
  ceaster-bendum,   cnra gehwylcum,
  eorlum ealu-scerwen.   Yrre w:ron bgen                      [770]
  re rn-weardas.   Reced hlynsode;
   ws wundor micel,   t se wn-sele
  wihfde heao-dorum,   t h on hrsan ne fol,
  f:ger fold-bold;   ac h s fste ws
  innan ond tan   ren-bendum                                 [775]
  searo-oncum besmiod.   :r fram sylle bag
  medu-benc monig,   mne gefr:ge,
  golde geregnad,   :r  graman wunnon;
  s ne wndon :r   witan Scyldinga,
  t hit  mid gemete   manna :nig,                           [780]
  betlc ond bn-fg,   tbrecan meahte,
  listum tlcan,   nyme lges fm
  swulge on swaule.   Swg p stg
  nwe geneahhe;   Nor-Denum std
  atelc egesa,   nra gehwylcum,                              [785]
  ra e of wealle   wp gehy:rdon,
  gryre-lo galan   Godes ondsacan,
  sige-lasne sang,   sr wnigean
  helle hfton.[3]   Hold hine fste,
  s e manna ws   mgene strengest                           [790]
  on :m dge   ysses lfes.
  Nolde eorla hlo   :nige inga
  one cwealm-cuman   cwicne forl:tan,
  n his lf-dagas   loda :nigum
  nytte tealde.   :r genehost br:gd                           [795]
  eorl Bowulfes   ealde lfe,
  wolde fra-drihtnes   feorh ealgian,
  m:res odnes,   :r he meahton sw.
  He t ne wiston,    he gewin drugon,
  heard-hicgende   hilde-mecgas,                               [800]
  ond on healfa gehwone   hawan hton,
  swle scan:   one syn-scaan
  :nig ofer eoran   renna cyst,
  g-billa nn,   grtan nolde;
  ac h sige-w:pnum   forsworen hfde,                         [805]
  ecga gehwylcre.   Scolde his aldor[4]-gedl
  on :m dge   ysses lfes
  earmlc wuran[5]   ond se ellor-gst
  on fonda geweald   feor sian.
   t onfunde,   s e fela :ror                            [810]
  mdes myre   manna cynne
  fyrene gefremede   (h _w:s_ fg wi God),
  t him se lc-homa   l:stan nolde,
  ac hine se mdega[6]   m:g Hygelces
  hfde be honda;   ws gehwer rum                         [815]
  lifigende l.   Lc-sr gebd
  atol :gl:ca[7];   him on eaxle wear
  syn-dolh sweotol;   seonowe onsprungon;
  burston bn-locan.   Bowulfe wear
  g-hr gyfee.   Scolde Grendel onan                      [820]
  feorh-soc flon   under fen-hleou,[8]
  scean wyn-las wc;   wiste  geornor,
  t his aldres[9] ws   ende gegongen,
  dgera dg-rm.   Denum eallum wear
  fter m wl-r:se   willa gelumpen.                         [825]
  Hfde  gef:lsod,   s e :r feorran cm,
  snotor ond swy:-ferh,   sele Hrgres,
  genered wi ne.   Niht-weorce gefeh,
  ellen-m:rum;   hfde ast-Denum
  Gat-mecga lod   gilp gel:sted;                             [830]
  swylce oncy:e   ealle gebtte,
  inwid-sorge,   e he :r drugon
  ond for ra-ny:dum   olian scoldon,
  torn unly:tel.   t ws tcen sweotol,
  syan hilde-dor   hond legde,                             [835]
  earm ond eaxle   (:r ws eal geador
  Grendles grpe)   under gapne hrf.

    [1] = ealdor-.
    [2] = Heorote.
    [3] = hftan.
    [4] = ealdor-.
    [5] = weoran.
    [6] = mdiga.
    [7] = gl:ca.
    [8] = -hliu.
    [9] = ealdres.

    [Linenotes:

    740: #t#, the direct object of #yldan#, refers to the
    contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was
    wondering how it would result.

    746: #tstp#. The subject of this verb and of #nam# is
    Grendel; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (#r:hte#,
    #onfng#, #gest#) is Beowulf.

    751-52: The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of
    stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement, by
    suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in
    their use of negatives (#ne#, l.13; p.140, l.3; #n#, p.140,
    l.1 [[lines 752, 757, 755]]), and in the unexpected prominence
    that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because
    understood; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the
    terror produced by Grendel's midnight visits to Heorot, says
    (ll.138-139), "Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more
    commodiously, sought rest for himself." It is hard to believe
    that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view.

    755: #n ... meahte#, _none the sooner could he away_. The
    omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries #magan,
    mtan, sculan#, and #willan# is very frequent. _Cf._ Beowulf's
    last utterance, p.147, l.17 [[line 2817]].

    768: The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit
    of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are
    withdrawn from our sight; but we hear the sound of the fray
    crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a
    blast; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as
    they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former
    banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress
    and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the
    "terror-lay" of Grendel, "lay of the beaten," and know that
    Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (#gilp
    gel:sted#).

    769: #cnra gehwylcum#. The indefinite pronouns (77) may be
    used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns; but they
    frequently, as here, take a partitive genitive: #nra
    gehwylcum#, _to each one_ (=_to each of ones_); #:nige#
    (instrumental) #inga#, _for any thing_ (=_for any of things_);
    #on healfa gehwone#, _into halves_ (=_into each of halves_);
    #ealra dgra gehwm#, _every day_ (=_on each of all days_);
    #htna gehwylce#, _every morning_ (=_on each of mornings_).

    780: Notice that #hit#, the object of #tbrecan#, stands for
    #wn-sele#, which is masculine. See p.39, Note 2 [[ 55, 2]].
    #Manna# is genitive after #gemete#, not after #:nig#.

    787-89: #gryre-lo ... hfton# [= #hftan#]. Note that verbs
    of hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the
    infinitive. They heard _God's adversary sing_ (#galan#) ...
    _hell's captive bewail_ (#wnigean#). Had the present participle
    been used, the effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize
    the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action
    (the infinitive itself).

    795-96: #:r ... lfe#. Beowulf's followers now seem to have
    seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that
    Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against
    the best of swords. _Then many an earl of Beowulf's_ (=_an earl
    of B. very often_) _brandished his sword._ That no definite earl
    is meant is shown by the succeeding #he meahton# instead of #h
    meahte#. See p.110, Note.  [[Linenote 110.5-6]

    799: _They did not know this_ (#t#), _while they were
    fighting_; but the first #He# refers to the warriors who
    proffered help; the second #he#, to the combatants, Beowulf and
    Grendel. In apposition with #:t#, stands the whole clause,
    #one synscaan# (object of #grtan#) #... nolde#. The second,
    or conjunctional, #t# is here omitted before #one#. See
    p.112, note on ll.18-19.

    837: #grpe# = genitive singular, feminine, after #eal#.]


BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.]

  [Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts
  upon Beowulf; but Grendel's mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf
  finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays
  her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf's lap. Beowulf,
  having now accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a
  reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon
  that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally
  wounded. Wiglaf, aloyal thane, is with him.]

                     so[1] wund ongon,
  e him se eor-draca   :r geworhte,
  swlan ond swellan.   H :t sna onfand,
  :t him on brostum   bealo-n woll                       [2715]
  ttor on innan.    se eling gong,[2]
  t h b wealle,   ws-hycgende,
  gest on sesse;   seah on enta geweorc,
  h  stn-bogan   stapulum fste
  ce eor-reced   innan healde.                              [2720]
  Hyne  mid handa   heoro-drorigne,
  oden m:rne,   egn ungemete till,
  wine-dryhten his   wtere gelafede,
  hilde-sdne,   ond his helm onspon.
  Bowulf[3] maelode;   h ofer benne sprc,                 [2725]
  wunde wl-blate;   wisse h gearwe,
  t h dg-hwla   gedrogen hfde
  eoran wynne;    ws eall sceacen
  dgor-germes,   da ungemete nah:
  "N ic suna mnum   syllan wolde                            [2730]
  g-gew:du,   :r m gifee sw
  :nig yrfe-weard   fter wurde
  lce gelenge.   Ic s lode hold
  fftig wintra;   ns se folc-cyning
  ymbe-sittendra   nig ra,                                 [2735]
  e mec g-winum   grtan dorste,
  egesan on.   Ic on earde bd
  m:l-gesceafta,   hold mn tela,
  n shte searo-nas,   n m swr fela
  a on unriht.   Ic s ealles mg,                         [2740]
  feorh-bennum soc,   gefan habban;
  for-m m wtan ne earf   Waldend[4] fra
  moror-bealo[5] mga,   onne mn sceace
  lf of lce.   N  lungre geong[6]
  hord scawian   under hrne stn,                           [2745]
  Wglf lofa,   n se wyrm lige,
  swefe sre wund,   since berafod.
  Bo[7] n on ofoste,   t ic :r-welan,
  gold-:ht ongite,   gearo scawige
  swegle searo-gimmas,   t ic y: sft mge                  [2750]
  fter mum-welan   mn l:tan
  lf ond lod-scipe,   one ic longe hold."

    [Linenotes:

    2716: #se eling# is Beowulf.

    2718: #enta geweorc# is a stereotyped phrase for anything that
    occasions wonder by its size or strangeness.

    2720: #healde#. Heyne, following Ettmller, reads #holdon#,
    thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the
    original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be
    legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself
    in time with the hero, whose wonder was "how the stone-arches
    ... _sustain_ the ever-during earth-hall": the construction is a
    form of _oratio recta_, a sort of _miratio recta_. The singular
    #healde#, instead of #healden#, has many parallels in the
    dependent clauses of _Beowulf_, most of these being relative
    clauses introduced by #ra e# (=_of those that ..._ + a
    singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has
    doubtless been influenced by the proximity of #eor-reced#, a
    _quasi_-subject; and we have no more right to alter to #healden#
    or #holdon# than we have to change Shakespeare's _gives_ to
    _give_in

        "Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath _gives_."
          (_Macbeth_, II, i, 61.)

    2722: The #egn ungemete till# is Wiglaf, the bravest of
    Beowulf's retainers.

    2725: #h ofer benne sprc#. The editors and translators of
    _Beowulf_ invariably render #ofer# in this passage by _about_;
    but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context seems
    to me to show plainly that #ofer# (cf.Latin _supra_) denotes
    here opposition = _in spite of_. We read in _Genesis_, l.594,
    that Eve took the forbidden fruit #ofer Drihtenes word#. Beowulf
    fears (l.2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = #ofer ealde
    riht#; and he goes forth (l.2409) #ofer willan# to confront the
    dragon.

    2731-33: #:r m ... gelenge#, _if so be that_ (#:r ... sw#)
    _any heir had afterwards been given me_ (#mgifee ... fter
    wurde#) _belonging to my body_.

    2744-45: #geong# [= #gong#] #... scawian#. See note on #ode
    ... sittan#, p.137, ll.19-20 [[lines 641-42]]. In Mn.E. _Go
    see, Go fetch_, etc., is the second verb imperative (cordinate
    with the first), or subjunctive (_that you may see_), or
    infinitive without _to_?

    2751-52: #mn ... lf#. See note on #ende-dg ... mnne#,
    p. 137, ll.16-17 [[lines 638-39]].]

    [1] = so.
    [2] = gong.
    [3] = Bowulf.
    [4] = Wealdend.
    [5] = moror-bealu.
    [6] = gong (gang).
    [7] = Bo.


BEOWULF'S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.]

  [Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf's triumph.
  Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives
  advice and final directions to Wiglaf.]

                _Bowulf[1] maelode_,
  gomel on giohe   (gold scawode):
  "Ic ra frtwa   Fran ealles anc,                        [2795]
  Wuldur-cyninge,   wordum secge
  ecum Dryhtne,   e ic hr on starie,
  s e ic mste   mnum lodum
  :r swylt-dge   swylc gestry:nan.
  N ic on mma hord   mne bebohte                          [2800]
  frde feorh-lege,   fremma g n
  loda earfe;   ne mg ic hr leng wesan.
  Hta heao-m:re   hl:w gewyrcean,
  beorhtne fter b:le   t brimes nosan;
  s scel[2] t gemyndum   mnum lodum                       [2805]
  hah hlfian   on Hrones nsse,
  t hit s:-lend   syan htan[3]
  Bowulfes[1] biorh[1]    e brentingas
  ofer flda genipu   feorran drfa."
  Dyde him of healse   hring gyldenne                         [2810]
  oden[1] rst-hy:dig;   egne gesealde,
  geongum gr-wigan,   gold-fhne helm,
  bah ond byrnan,   ht hyne brcan well.
  " eart ende-lf   sses cynnes,
  W:gmundinga;   ealle wyrd forswop                          [2815]
  mne mgas   t metod-sceafte,
  eorlas on elne;   ic him fter sceal."
  t ws m gomelan   gingeste word
  brost-gehygdum,   :r h b:l cure,
  hte heao-wylmas;   him of hrere gewt                    [2820]
  swol scean   s-fstra dm.

  [1] o, io = o, eo.
  [2] = sceal.
  [3] = hten.

    [Linenotes:

    2795-99: The expression #secgan anc# takes the same
    construction as #ancian#; i.e., the dative of the person
    (#Fran#) and the genitive (agenitive of cause) of the thing
    (#ra frtwa#). Cf. note on #biddan#, p.45[[ 65, 3]]. The
    antecedent of #e# is #frtwa#. For the position of #on#, see
    94, (5). The clause introduced by #s e# (_because_) is
    parallel in construction with #frtwa#, both being causal
    modifiers of #secge anc#. The Christian coloring in these lines
    betrays the influence of priestly transcribers.

    2800: _Now that I, in exchange for_ (#on#) _a hoard of
    treasures, have bartered_ (#bebohte#) _the laying down_ (#-lege#
    > #licgan#) _of my old life._ The ethical codes of the early
    Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or
    life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the
    "wergild."

    2801: #fremma g#. The plural imperative (asalso in #Hta#)
    shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in
    particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,--to
    his _comitatus_.

    2806: The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent
    expression in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was
    situated "high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that
    it might be seen from off the sea." Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury
    him in the same way. neas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a
    high mound on a headland of the sea.

    2807: #hit = hl:w#, which is masculine. See p.39, Note2
    [[ 55, 2]].

    2810-11: #him ... oden#. The reference in both cases is to
    Beowulf, who is disarming himself (#do-of# > _doff_) for the
    last time; #egne# = _to Wiglaf_.

    Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the
    dative instead of the more colorless possessive; #him of
    healse#, not #of his healse#.

    2817: #ic ... sceal#. See note on #n ... meahte#, p.140,
    l.1 [[line 755]].

    2820: #him of hrere#. Cf. note on #him ... oden#, p.147,
    ll.10-11 [[lines 2810-11]].

    2820-21: For construction of #gewt ... scean#, see note on
    #ode ... sittan#, p.137, ll.19-20 [[lines 641-42]].]


VII. THE WANDERER.

  [Exeter MS. "The epic character of the ancient lyric appears
  especially in this: that the song is less the utterance of a
  momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps
  the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated,
  or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends." (Ten
  Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._,I.) Iadopt Brooke's threefold division
  (_Early Eng. Lit._, p.356): "It opens with a Christian prologue,
  and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the
  poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of
  the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were
  uninfluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine."

  The author is unknown.]


PROLOGUE.

  Oft him nhaga   re gebde,
  Metudes[1] miltse,   ah e h mdcearig
  geond lagulde   longe sceolde
  hrran mid hondum   hrmcealde s:,
  wadan wrcl:stas:   wyrd bi ful r:d!                         [5]
  Sw cw eardstapa   earfea[2] gemyndig,
  wrra wlsleahta,   winem:ga hryres:

PLAINT OF THE WANDERER.

  "Oft ic sceolde na   htna gehwylce
  mne ceare cwan;   nis n cwicra nn,
  e ic him mdsefan   mnne durre                              [10]
  sweotule[3] secgan.   Ic t se wt
  t bi in eorle   indryhten aw,
  t h his ferlocan   fste binde,
  healde his hordcofan,   hycge sw h wille;
  ne mg wrig md   wyrde wistondan                           [15]
  n s hro hyge   helpe gefremman:
  for on dmgeorne   drorigne oft
  in hyra brostcofan   binda fste.
  Sw ic mdsefan   mnne sceolde
  oft earmcearig   le bid:led,                                [20]
  from:gum feor   feterum s:lan,
  sian gara i   goldwine mnne
  hrsan heolster biwrh,   and ic han onan
  wd wintercearig   ofer waema gebind,
  shte sele drorig   sinces bryttan,                          [25]
  hw:r ic feor oe nah   findan meahte
  one e in meoduhealle[4]   miltse wisse
  oe mec frondlasne   frfran wolde,
  wenian mid wynnum.   Wt s e cunna
  h slen bi   sorg t gefran                               [30]
  m e him ly:t hafa   lofra geholena:
  wara hine wrclst,   nles wunden gold,
  ferloca frorig,   nls foldan bl:d;
  gemon h selesecgas   and sincege,
  h hine on geogue   his goldwine                             [35]
  wenede t wiste:   wyn eal gedras!
  For on wt s e sceal   his winedryhtnes
  lofes lrcwidum   longe forolian,
  onne sorg and sl:p   somod tgdre
  earmne nhagan   oft gebinda:                                [40]
  ince him on mde   t h his mondryhten
  clyppe and cysse,   and on cno lecge
  honda and hafod,   sw h hwlum :r
  in gardagum   giefstles brac;
  onne onwcne eft   winelas guma,                           [45]
  gesih him biforan   fealwe w:gas,
  baian brimfuglas,   br:dan fera,
  hrosan hrm and snw   hagle gemenged.
  onne bo y: hefigran   heortan benne,
  sre fter sw:sne;   sorg bi genwad;                        [50]
  onne mga gemynd   md geondhweorfe,
  grte glwstafum,   georne geondscawa.
  Secga geseldan   swimma eft on weg;
  flotendra fer[5]   n :r fela bringe
  cra cwidegiedda;   cearo[6] bi genwad                     [55]
  m e sendan sceal   swe geneahhe
  ofer waema gebind   wrigne sefan.
  For on ic geencan ne mg   geond s woruld
  for hwan mdsefa   mn ne gesweorce,
  onne ic eorla lf   eal geondence,                          [60]
  h h f:rlce   flet ofgafon,
  mdge maguegnas.   Sw s middangeard
  ealra dgra gehwm   drose and fealle;
  for on ne mg weoran ws   wer, :r h ge
  wintra d:l in woruldrce.   Wita sceal geyldig,              [65]
  ne sceal n t htheort   n t hrdwyrde,
  n t wc wiga   n t wanhy:dig,
  n t forht n t fgen   n t feohgfre,
  n n:fre gielpes t georn,   :r h geare cunne.
  Beorn sceal gebdan,   onne h bot sprice,                 [70]
  o t collenfer   cunne gearwe
  hwider hrera gehygd   hweorfan wille.
  Ongietan sceal glaw hle   h g:stlc bi,
  onne eall isse worulde wela   wste stonde,
  sw n missenlce   geond isne middangeard                   [75]
  winde biwune[7]   weallas stonda,
  hrme bihrorene,[8]   hryge  ederas.
  Wria  wnsalo,[9]   waldend licga
  drame bidrorene[10];   dugu eal gecrong
  wlonc b wealle:   sume wg fornm,                           [80]
  ferede in forwege;   sumne fugel[11] obr
  ofer hanne holm;   sumne s hra wulf
  dae ged:lde;   sumne drorighlor
  in eorscrfe   eorl gehy:dde:
  y:de sw isne eardgeard   lda Scyppend,                     [85]
  o t burgwara   breahtma lase
  eald enta geweorc   dlu stdon.
  S onne isne wealsteal   wse gehte,
  and is deorce lf   dope geondence,
  frd in fere[12]   feor oft gemon                            [90]
  wlsleahta worn,   and s word cwi:
  'Hw:r cwm mearg? hw:r cwm mago[13]? hw:r cwm mumgyfa?
  hw:r cwm symbla gesetu?    hw:r sindon seledramas?
  al beorht bune!   al byrnwiga!
  al odnes rym!   h so rg gewt,                       [95]
  genp under nihthelm,   sw ho n w:re!
  Stonde n on lste   lofre dugue
  weal wundrum hah,   wyrmlcum fh:
  eorlas fornmon   asca ry:e,
  w:pen wlgfru,   wyrd so m:re;                             [100]
  and s stnhleou[14]   stormas cnyssa;
  hr hrosende   hrsan binde,
  wintres wma,   onne won cyme,
  npe nihtsca,   noran onsende
  hro hglfare   hleum on andan.                            [105]
  Eall is earfolc   eoran rce,
  onwende wyrda gesceaft   weoruld under heofonum:
  hr bi feoh l:ne,   hr bi frond l:ne,
  hr bi mon l:ne,   hr bi m:g l:ne;
  eal is eoran gesteal   del weore!'"                     [110]

EPILOGUE.

  Sw cw snottor on mde,   gest him sundor t rune.
  Til bi s e his trowe gehealde;
        ne sceal n:fre his torn t rycene
  beorn of his brostum cy:an,   neme h :r  bte cunne;
  eorl mid elne gefremman.   Wel bi m e him re sce,
  frfre t Fder on heofonum,
        :r s eal so fstnung stonde.                       [115]

    [1] = Metodes.
    [2] = earfoa.
    [3] = sweotole.
    [4] = medu-.
    [5] = ferh.
    [6] = cearu.
    [7] See bewwan.
    [8] See behrosan.
    [9] = wnsalu.
    [10] See bedrosan.
    [11] = fugol.
    [12] = ferhe.
    [13] = magu.
    [14] = -hliu.

    [Linenotes:

    7: The MS. reading is #hryre# (nominative), which is
    meaningless.

    8: For #htna gehwylce#, see note on #cnra gehwylcum#,
    p.140 [[_Beowulf_ 769]].

    10: #e ... him#. See 75 (4). Cf. _Merchant of Venice_,
    II, v, 50-51.

    27: For #mine# (MS. #in#), which does not satisfy metrical
    requirements, Iadopt Kluge's plausible substitution of
    #miltse#; #miltse witan# = _to show_ (_know, feel_), _pity_. The
    #myne wisse# of _Beowulf_ (l.169) is metrically admissible.

    37: The object of #wt# is #ince him on mde#; but the
    construction is unusual, inasmuch as both #t's# (#t#
    pronominal before #wt# and #t# conjunctional before #ince#)
    are omitted. See p.112, ll.18-19.

    41: #ince him on mde# (see note on #him ... oden#, p. 147
    [[_Beowulf_ 2810-11]]). "No more sympathetic picture has
    been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in
    exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord
    and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts,--then wakes to
    look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail falling
    all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray." (Gummere,
    _Germanic Origins_, p.221.)

    53-55: #Secga ... cwidegiedda# = _But these comrades of
    warriors_ [= those seen in vision] _again swim away_ [= _fade
    away_]; _the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many
    familiar words_; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old
    familiar faces, but no voice is heard: they bring neither
    greetings to him nor tidings of themselves.

    65: #Wita sceal geyldig#. Either #bon# (#wesan#) is here
    to be understood after #sceal#, or #sceal# alone means _ought to
    be_. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose,
    though the omission of a verb of motion after #sculan# is common
    in all periods of Old English. See note on #n ... meahte#,
    p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 755]].

    75: #sw n#. "The Old English lyrical feeling," says Ten
    Brink, citing the lines that immediately follow #sw n#, "is
    fond of the image of physical destruction"; but I do not think
    these lines have a merely figurative import. The reference is to
    a period of real devastation, antedating the Danish incursions.
    "We might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad
    government and of national tumult which filled the years between
    the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of
    Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729."
    (Brooke, _Early Eng. Lit._, p.355.)

    93: #cwm ... gesetu#. Ettmller reads #cwmon#; but see
    p. 107, note on #ws ...  gland# [[linenote 107.14-15]]. The
    occurrence of #hw:r cwm# three times in the preceding line
    tends also to hold #cwm# in the singular when its plural
    subject follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar
    structural parallelism in _seas hides_ of these lines (_Winter's
    Tale_, IV, iv, 500-502):

      "Not for ... all the _sun sees_ or
      The close _earth wombs_ or the profound _seas hides_
      In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath."

    111: #gest ... rne#, _sat apart to himself in silent
    meditation_.

    114: #eorl ... gefremman#. Supply #sceal# after #eorl#.]




I. GLOSSARY.

OLD ENGLISH--MODERN ENGLISH.


[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that  follows t.
The combination  follows ad.

Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f.
(=feminine), n. (=neuter). The usual abbreviations are employed for
the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other abbreviations are
sing. (=singular), pl.(=plural), ind. (=indicative mood), sub.
(=subjunctive mood), pres. (=present tense), pret. (=preterit tense),
prep. (=preposition), adj. (=adjective), adv. (=adverb), part.
(=participle), conj. (=conjunction), pron. (=pronoun), intrans.
(=intransitive), trans. (=transitive).

Figures not preceded by  refer to page and line of the texts.]

  [[Transcriber's Note:
  References to verse selections (pages 136-153) are followed by the
  actual line number in [[double brackets]].]


#A.#

  , _ever, always, aye_.
  abbudisse, f., _abbess_ [Lat. abbatissa].
  bodan ( 109), _bid, offer_;
    him h:l bad 138, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 654]] = _bade him hail, wished him
      health_.
  brecan ( 120, Note 2), _break down, destroy_.
  bgan ( 109, Note 1), _give way, start_ [bow away].
  ac, conj., _but_.
  cwean ( 115), _say, speak_.
  cy:an ( 126), _reveal, proclaim_ [c].
  d, m., _funeral pile_.
  adesa, m., _adze, hatchet_.
  : (:w), f., _law_.
  :dre (dre), f., _stream, canal, vein_;
    bld drum dranc 139, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 743]] = _drank blood in streams_
      (instr.).
  :fstnis, f., _piety_.
  :fen-rst, f., _evening rest_.
  :fen-spr:c, f., _evening speech_.
  :f[e,]st (:wf[e,]st), _law-abiding, pious_.
  :f[e,]stnis, see :fstnis.
  :fre, _ever, always_.
  :fter, prep. ( 94, (1)), _after_;
    :fter :m, _after that, thereafter_;
    fter :m e, conj., _after_.
  fter, adv., _after, afterwards_.
  :ghw ( 77, Note), _each, every_.
  :ghwilc ( 77, Note), _each, any_.
  :gl:ca, see gl:ca.
  :ger (:ghwer, er) ( 77, Note), _each, either_;
    :ger ... er ... er, _either ... or ... or_;
    :ger ge ... ge ( 95, (2)), _both ... and_;
    :ger ge ... ge ... ge, _both ... and ... and_.
  :ht, f., _property, possession_ [gan].
  :lc ( 77), _each_.
  lde (ielde) ( 47), m. pl., _men_; gen. pl., lda.
  lmihtig, _almighty_.
  :metta, m., _leisure_ [_empti_-ness].
  :nig ( 77), _any_;
    :nige inga 141, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 792]] = _for anything_.
    (See 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.)
  :r, adv., _before, formerly, sooner_;
    n y: :r 140, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 755]] = _none the sooner_;
    :ror, comparative, _before, formerly_;
    :rest, superlative, _first_.
  :r, conj. ( 105, 2), _ere, before_ = :r :me.
  :r, prep, with dat., _before_ (time);
    :r :m e, conj. ( 105, 2), _before_.
  rcebisceop, m., _archbishop_ [Lat. archiepiscopus].
  :rendgewrit, n., _message, letter_.
  :rendwreca (-raca), m., _messenger_.
  :rest, adj. ( 96, (4)), _first_.
  rnan ( 127), _ride, gallop_ [iernan].
  :rra, adj. ( 96, (4)), _former_.
  :rwela, m., _ancient wealth_.
  sc, m., _ash, spear_; gen. pl., asca.
  scesdn, f., _Ashdown_ (in Berkshire).
  stel, m., _book-mark_ [Lat. hastula].
  t ( 94, (1)), _at, in_;
    with leornian, _to learn_, geicgan, _to receive_, and other verbs
      of similar import,
    t = _from_: 115, 18; 137, 8 [[_Beowulf_ 630]], etc.
  tberan ( 114), _bear to, hand_.
  tgd(e)re, adv., _together_.
  tsteppan ( 116), _step up, advance_; pret. sing., tstp.
  ele, _noble, excellent_.
  eling, m., _a noble, prince_.
  elwulfing, m., _son of Ethelwulf_.
  ered, m., _Ethelred_.
  feallan ( 117), _fall_.
  fierran ( 127), _remove_ [feor].
  gan ( 136), _to own, possess_.
  gen, adj.-part., _own_; dat. sing., gnum [gan].
  giefan ( 115), _give back_.
  gl:ca (:gl:ca), m., _monster, champion_.
  hton, see gan.
  l:tan ( 117), _let go, leave_.
  aldor, see ealdor.
  l[e,]cgan ( 125, Note), _lay down_ [licgan]; past part., ld.
  lesend, m., _Redeemer_ [lesan = _release, ransom_].
  limpan ( 110), _befall, occur_.
  ly:fan ( 126), _entrust, permit_.
  ambor, m., _measure_; gen. pl., ambra ( 27, (4)).
  ambyre, _favorable_.
  n ( 89), _one_;
    na, _alone, only_;
    nra gehwylcum 141, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 785]] = _to each one_.
    (See 140, 15, Note. [[_Beowulf_ 769]])
  anda, m., _zeal, injury, indignation_;
    hleum on andan 153, 6 [[_Wanderer_ 105]] = _harmful to men_.
  andfn, f., _proportion, amount_.
  andgiet (-git), n., _sense, meaning_.
  andgitfullce, _intelligibly_;
    -gitfullcost, _superlative_.
  andswaru, f., _answer_.
  andwyrdan ( 127), _to answer_; pret., andwyrde.
  Angel, n., _Anglen_ (in Denmark); dat. sing., Angle ( 27 (4)).
  Angelcynn, n., _English kin, English people, England_.
  nhaga (-hoga), m., _a solitary, wanderer_ [n + hogian,
      _to meditate_].
  nlpig, _single, individual_.
  nunga ( 93, (2)), _once for all_ [n].
  apostol, m., _apostle_ [Gr. +apostolos+].
  r, f., _honor, property, favor_;
    re gebde 148, 3 [[_Wanderer_ 1]] = _waits for divine favor_
      (gen.).
  r:d, adj., _inexorable_.
  r:dan ( 126), _read_.
  r[e,]cc(e)an ( 128), _translate, expound_.
  rfstnis, f., _virtue_.
  rsan ( 102), _arise_.
  asca, see aesc.
  s[e,]cgan ( 132), _say, relate_.
  s[e,]ttan ( 127), _set, place_.
  singan ( 110), _sing_.
  sp[e,]ndan ( 127), _spend, expend_.
  stgan ( 102), _ascend, arise_.
  st[o,]ndan ( 116), _stand up_.
  tah, see ton.
  atelc, _horrible, dire_.
  ton ( 118), _draw, draw away, take_ (asa journey).
  atol, _horrible, dire_.
  ttor, n., _poison_.
  tuge, see ton.
  , m., _oath_.
  er, see :ger.
  w[e,]ccan ( 128), _awake, arouse_; pret. sing., weahte, w[e,]hte.
  aweg, _away_.
  w[e,]ndan ( 127), _turn, translate_.
  wrtan ( 102), _write, compose_.
  wyrcan ( 128), _work, do, perform_.


#B.#

  Bchs[e,]cg, m., _Bagsac_.
  bcbord, n., _larboard, left side of a ship_.
  b:l, n., _funeral fire, funeral pile_.
  bn, n., _bone_.
  bn-fg, _adorned with bones_ or _antlers_.
  bn-loca, m., _flesh_ [bone-locker].
  Basengas, m. pl., _Basing_ (in Hantshire).
  be (b) ( 94, (1)), _by, about, concerning, near, along,
      accordingto_;
    be noran :m wstenne ( 94, (4)), _north of the waste (desert)_;
    be fullan, _fully, perfectly_.
  bag, see bgan.
  bag-hroden, _ring-adorned_.
  bah (bag), m., _ring, bracelet, collar_ [bgan].
  bealo-n, m., _dire hatred, poison, venom_.
  bearn, n., _child, son_ [bairn].
  bebodan ( 109), _command, bid, entrust_ (with dat.).
  bebo-, see bebo-.
  bebohte, see bebycgan.
  bebycgan ( 128), _sell_.
  bc, see bc.
  becuman ( 114), _come, arrive, befall_.
  bed:lan ( 126), _separate, deprive_.
  bedrosan ( 109), _deprive_; past part. pl., bedrorene (bidrorene)
      [dross, dreary].
  bef:stan ( 127), _fasten, implant_.
  befolan ( 110), _apply one's self_;
    ra e  spda hbben :t he :m befolan mgen 119, 20 =
      _of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves
      toit_.
  beforan, prep. with dat., _before_.
  bgen (declined like twgen,  89), _both_.
  begeondan (begiondan), prep. with dat., _beyond_.
  begietan ( 115), _get, obtain, find_.
  beginnan ( 110), _begin_.
  beheonan (behionan), prep. with dat., _on this sideof_.
  behresan ( 109), _fall upon, cover_; past part. pl., behrorene
      (bihrorene).
  belimpan ( 110), _pertain, belong_.
  beniman ( 114), _take, derive_.
  b[e,]nn, f., _wound_ [bana = _murderer_].
  bon (bon) ( 134), _be, consist_.
  beorh (beorg, biorh), m., _mound_ [barrow].
  beorht, _bright, glorious_.
  Beormas, m. pl., _Permians_.
  beorn, m., _man, hero, chief_.
  bor-[e,]gu, f., _beer-drinking_ [icgan = _receive_].
  bot, n., _boast_.
  beran ( 114), _bear_.
  berafian ( 130), _bereave_;
    since berafod 145, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 2747]] = _bereft of treasure_.
  beren, adj., _of a bear, bear_.
  berstan ( 110), _burst, crack_.
  besmiian ( 130), _make hard_ (as at the forge of a smith).
  b[e,]t, see wel ( 97, (2)).
  btan ( 126), _make good, requite_; past part. pl., gebtte.
  b[e,]tera (b[e,]tra), see gd ( 96, (3)).
  betlc, _excellent_.
  b[e,]tsta, see gd ( 96, (3)).
  betuh (betux) ( 94, (1)), _between_.
  betwonan ( 94, (1)), _between_.
  bety:nan ( 126), _close, end_ [tn = _enclosure_].
  bewwan ( 117), _blow upon_; past part. pl., bewune (biwune,
      bewwene).
  bewron ( 118, 1), _enwrap_; pret. 3d sing., bewrh (biwrh).
  b, see be.
  bi-, see be-.
  bdan ( 102), _bide, await, expect, endure_ (with gen.).
  biddan ( 115, Note 2), _bid, pray, request_ (65, Note3);
    bd hine blne 136, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 618]] = _bade him be blithe_.
  bindan ( 110), _bind_.
  bo, see bo (imperative sing.).
  bisceop (biscep), m., _bishop_ [Lat. episcopus].
  bisceop-stl, m., _episcopal seat, bishopric_.
  bisigu, f., _business, occupation_; dat. pl., bisgum.
  btan ( 102), _bite, cut_.
  biwrh, see bewron.
  bl:d, m., _glory, prosperity_ [blwan = _blow, inflate_].
  Blcinga-g, f., _Blekingen_.
  bliss, f., _bliss_ [ble].
  ble, _blithe, happy_.
  bld, n., _blood_.
  bc ( 68, (1), Note 1), f., _book_.
  bcere, m., _scribe_ [bc].
  b[o,]na (bana), m., _murderer_ [bane].
  bt, f., _boot, remedy, help, compensation_.
  brd ( 96, (1)), _broad_.
  br:dan ( 126), _extend, spread_ [brd].
  br:dra, see brd.
  brgd, see bregdan.
  brac, see brcan.
  breahtm, m., _noise, revelry_;
    burgwara breahtma lase 152, 10 [[_Wanderer_ 86]] = _bereft of the
      revelries of citizens_.
  bregdan ( 110), _brandish, draw_ [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., brgd.
  brenting, m., _high ship_.
  brost, n., _breast_ (the pl.has the same meaning as the sing.).
  brost-cofa, m., _breast-chamber, heart, mind_.
  brost-gehygd, n., _breast-thought, thought of the heart, emotion_.
  brim, n., _sea, ocean_.
  brimfugol, m., _sea-fowl_.
  bringan ( 128), _bring_.
  brhte, brhton, see bringan.
  bror (brur) ( 68, (2)), m., _brother_.
  brcan ( 109, Note 1), _use, enjoy_ (62, Note 1; but Alfred
      frequently employs the acc. with brcan).
  brycg, f., _bridge_.
  bry:c, see brcan.
  brytta, m., _distributor, dispenser_ [brotan = _break in pieces_].
  ban ( 126, Note 2), _dwell, cultivate_ [bower].
  bde, see ban.
  bufan, prep. with dat. and acc., _above_.
  bgan ( 109, Note 1), _bow, bend, turn_.
  bune, f., _cup_.
  burg (burh) ( 68, (1), Note), f., _city, borough_; dat. sing., byrig.
  Burgenda, m. gen. pl., _of the Burgundians_;
    Burgenda land, _Bornholm_.
  burgware ( 47), m. pl., _burghers, citizens_.
  burh, see burg.
  btan (bton), prep. ( 94, (1)), _without, except, except for, but_.
  btan (bton), conj., _except that, unless_.
  bt, _both_ (= _both_--_two_.
    The word is compounded of the combined neuters of bgen and twgen,
      but is m. and f. as well asn.).
  by:n ( 126, Note 2), _cultivated_.
  byrde, adj., _of high rank, aristocratic_.
  byrig, see burg.
  byrne, f., _byrnie, corselet, coat of mail_.
  byrnwiga, m., _byrnie-warrior, mailed soldier_.
  byr, see beran.


#C.#

  cann, m., _sacred canon, Bible_ [Lat. canon, Gr. +kann+].
  cearu (cearo), f., _care_.
  ceaster-bend, m., _castle-dweller_.
  cne, _keen, bold, brave_.
  cosan ( 109), _choose, accept, encounter_.
  cild, n., _child_.
  cirice, f., _church_; nom. pl., ciricean.
  cirr (cierr), m., _turn, time, occasion_ [char, chore, ajar = on
      char, on the turn].
  cirran ( 127), _turn_.
  cl:ne, _clean, pure_.
  cl:ne, adv., _entirely _ ["clean out of the way," Shaks.].
  cldig, _rocky_ [having boulders or masses like _clouds_].
  clyppan ( 127), _embrace, accept_ [clip = clasp for letters, papers,
      etc.].
  cnapa, m., _boy_ [knave].
  cno (cnow), n., _knee_; acc. pl., cno.
  cniht, m., _knight, warrior_.
  cnyssan ( 125), _beat_.
  collenfer (-ferh), _proud-minded, fierce_.
  costnung, f., _temptation_.
  Crcas (Cracas), m. pl., _Greeks_.
  cringan ( 110), _cringe, fall_.
  Crst, m., _Christ_.
  Crsten, _Christian_; nom. pl.m., Crstene, Crstne.
  cuma, m., _new-comer, stranger_.
  cuman ( 114), _come_. (See p.138, Note on ll.2-6.)
  cunnan ( 137), _know, can, understand_.
  cunnian ( 130), _make trial of, experience_ [cunnan].
  cure, see cosan.
  c, _well-known, familiar_ [past part. of cunnan: cf. uncouth].
  ce, cen, con, see cunnan.
  cw:den, cw:don, see cwean.
  cwalu, f., _death, murder_ [cwelan].
  cwealm-cuma, m., _murderous comer_.
  cwelan ( 114), _die_ [to quail].
  cwn, f., _queen_.
  Cwnas, m. pl., _a Finnish tribe_.
  cwean ( 115), _say, speak_ [quoth, bequeath].
  cwic, _living, alive_ [quicksilver; the quick and the dead].
  cwidegiedd, n., _word, utterance_ [cwean and gieddian, both meaning
      _to speak_].
  cwan ( 126), _bewail_ (trans.).
  cwm, see cuman.
  cyle (ciele), m., _cold_ [chill];
    cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = _produce cold, freeze_.
  cyme, m., _coming_ [cuman].
  cyn(n), n., _kin, race_.
  cyn(n), adj. (used only in pl.), _fitting things, etiquette,
      proprieties, courtesies_;
    cynna gemyndig 136, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 614]] = _mindful of courtesies_.
  cynerce, n., _kingdom_.
  cyning, m., _king_.
  cyssan ( 125), _kiss_.
  cyst, f., _the choice, the pick, the best_ [cosan].
  cy:an ( 126), _make known, display_, [c];
    2d sing. imperative, cy:.


#D.#

  d:d, f., _deed_.
  dg, m., _day_.
  dg-hwl, f., _day-while, day_;
    h dg-hwla gedrogen hfde eoran wynne 145, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 2727]] =
      _he had spent his days of earth's joy_.
  dg-rm, n., number of days [day-rime];
    dgera daeg-rm 143, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 824]] = _the number of his days_.
  dl, n., _dale_.
  d:l, m., _part, deal, division_.
  dad, _dead_.
  da, m., _death_.
  dman ( 126), _deem, judge_.
  D[e,]namearc, see D[e,]nemearc.
  D[e,]ne ( 47), m. pl., _Danes_.
  D[e,]nemearc (D[e,]nemearce), f., _Denmark_; dat. sing., D[e,]nemearce
      (strong), D[e,]nemearcan (weak).
  D[e,]nisc, _Danish_;
     D[e,]niscan, _the Danes_.
  dofol, m., n., _devil_; gen. sing., dofles ( 27, (4)).
  dope, _deeply, profoundly_ [dop].
  dor, n., _wild animal_ [deer].
  deorc, _dark, gloomy_.
  dgor, n., _day_; gen. pl., dgora, dgera, dgra.
  dgor-germ, n., _number of days, lifetime_.
  dm, m., _doom, judgment, glory_.
  dmgeorn, adj., _eager for glory_ [_doom-yearning_].
  dn ( 135), _do, cause, place, promote, remove_.
  dorste, dorston, see durran.
  dram, m., _joy, mirth_ [dream].
  drogan ( 109), _endure, enjoy, spend_ [Scotch dree].
  drorig, _dreary, sad_.
  drorighlor, adj., _with sad face_ [hlor = _cheek, face, leer_].
  drosan ( 109), _fall, perish_ [dross].
  drfan ( 102), _drive_.
  drihten, see dryhten.
  drincan ( 110), _drink_.
  drohto (-a), m., _mode of living, occupation_ [drogan].
  drugon, see drogan.
  dryhten (drihten), m., _lord, Lord_; dat. sing., dryhtne.
  dryht-s[e,]le, m., _lordly hall_.
  dugu, f., _warrior-band, host, retainers_ [doughtiness].
    In dugu and geogo, the higher (older) and lower (younger) ranks
      are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly to the
      medival distinction between knights and squires.
  durran ( 137), _dare_.
  duru, f., _door_.
  dyde, see dn.
  dynnan ( 125), resound [din].
  dy:re (dere, dore, dore), _dear, costly_.


#E.#

  a, f., _river_; gen. sing., as; dat. and acc. sing., a.
  ac, _also, likewise_ [a nickname = an eek-name. See 65, Note2];
    ac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 = _also_.
  aca, m., _addition_ [ac];
    t acan = _in addition to_ ( 94, (4)).
  age, n., _eye_.
  eahta, _eight_.
  al, _oh!_ _alas!_
  eala, see ealu.
  eald ( 96, (2)), _old_.
  ealdor (aldor), n., _life_;
    gif  t [e,]llenweorc aldre gedgest 138, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 662]]
      = _if thou survivest that feat with thy life_ (instr.).
  ealdor-dg (aldor-, ealder-), m., _day of life_.
  ealdor-gedl (aldor-), n., _death_ [life-deal].
  ealdorm[o,]n, m., _alderman, chief, magistrate_.
  ealgian, ( 130), _protect, defend_.
  eall (eal), _all_;
    ealne weg, _all the way_ ( 98, (1));
    ealneg (< ealne weg), _always_;
    ealles ( 98, (3)), adv., _altogether, entirely_.
    Eall (eal) is frequently used with partitive gen. = _all of_:
      143, 19 [[_Beowulf_ 836]]; 145,3 [[_Beowulf_ 2728]].
  ealu (ealo) ( 68), n., _ale_; gen. sing., eala.
  ealu-scerwen, f., _mortal panic_ [ale-spilling].
  eard, m., _country, home_ [eore].
  eardgeard, m. _earth_ [earth-yard].
  eardian ( 130), _dwell_ [eard].
  eardstapa, m., _wanderer_ [earth-stepper].
  are, n., _ear_.
  earfo (earfe), n. _hardship, toil_; gen. pl., earfea.
  earfolc, adj., _full of hardship, arduous_.
  earm, m., _arm_.
  earm, adj., _poor, wretched_.
  earmcearig, _wretched, miserable_.
  earmlc, _wretched, miserable_.
  earnung, f., _merit_ [earning].
  ast, _east_.
  astan ( 93, (5)), _from the east_.
  ast-D[e,]ne ( 47), _East-Danes_.
  asteweard, _eastward_.
  astrihte (astryhte) ( 93, (6)), _eastward_.
  astron, pl., _Easter_.
  ae, _easily_.
  amdlce, _humbly_.
  eaxl, f., _shoulder_ [axle].
  Ebrisc, adj., _Hebrew_.
  ce, _eternal, everlasting_.
  [e,]cg, f., _sword_ [edge].
  edor, m., _enclosure, dwelling_; nom. pl., ederas.
  drum, see :dre.
  efne, adv., _just, only_ [evenly].
  eft, adv., _again, afterwards_ [aft].
  [e,]gesa, m., _fear, terror_ [awe].
  [e,]llen, n., _strength, courage_;
    mid [e,]lne = _boldly_;
    on [e,]lne 147, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 2817]] = _mightily, suddenly_, or _in
      their (earls') strength (prime)_.
  [e,]llen-m:ru, f. _fame for strength, feat of strength_.
  [e,]llen-weorc, n., _feat of strength_.
  [e,]llenwdnis, f., _zeal, fervor_.
  [e,]llor-gst, m., _inhuman monster_ [alien ghost].
  [e,]ln, f., _ell_ [el-bow].
  [e,]lne, _see_ [e,]llen.
  [e,]lra, adj. comparative, _another_ [*[e,]le cognate with Lat.
      alius];
    on [e,]lran m[e,]n 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in another man_.
  emnlong (-lang), _equally long_;
    on emnlange = _along_ ( 94, (4)).
  [e,]nde, m., _end_.
  [e,]ndebyrdnes, f., _order_.
  [e,]nde-dg, m., _end-day, day of death_.
  [e,]nde-lf, f., _last remnant_ [end-leaving].
  [e,]ngel, m., _angel_ [Lat. angelus].
  [E,]nglafeld ( 51), m., _Englefield_ (in Berkshire).
  [E,]ngle ( 47), m. pl., _Angles_.
  [E,]nglisc, adj., _English_;
    on [E,]nglisc 117, 18 and 19 = _in English, into English_.
  [E,]ngliscgereord, n., _English language_.
  [e,]nt, m., _giant_.
  ode, see gn.
  eodorcan ( 130), _ruminate_.
  eorl, m., _earl, warrior, chieftain_.
  eorlc, _earl-like, noble_.
  eor-draca, m., dragon [earth-drake].
  eore, f., _earth_.
  eor-r[e,]ced, n., _earth-hall_.
  eorscrf, n., _earth-cave, grave_.
  eoten, m., _giant, monster_.
  ow, see .
  owland, n., _land_ (an island in the Baltic Sea).
  [e,]rian ( 125), _plow_ [to ear].
  Estland, n., _land of the Estas_ (on the eastern coast of the Baltic
      Sea).
  Estm[e,]re, m., _Frische Haff_.
  Estum, dat. pl., _the Estas_.
  etan ( 115), _eat_ [ort].
  [e,]ttan ( 127), _graze_ [etan].
  el, m., _territory, native land_ [allodial].
  el-weard, m., _guardian of his country_.


#F.#

  fc, n., _interval, space_.
  fder ( 68, (2)), m., _father_.
  fgen, _fain, glad, exultant_.
  fger (f:ger), _fair, beautiful_.
  f:lsian ( 130), _cleanse_.
  f:rlce, _suddenly_ [f:r = _fear_].
  fst, _fast, held fast_.
  fste, adv., _fast, firmly_.
  fstnung, f., _security, safety_.
  ft, n., _vessel_ [wine-fat, vat].
  f:tels, m., _vessel_; acc. pl., f:tels.
  fm, m., _embrace, bosom_ [fathom = the space _embraced_ by the
      extended arms].
  fg (fh), _hostile_;
    h ws fg wi God 142, 18 [[_Beowulf_ 812]] = _he was hostile to
      God_.
  fh (fg), _variegated, ornamented_.
  Falster, _Falster_ (island in the Baltic Sea).
  fandian ( 130), _try, investigate_ [findan].
  faran ( 116), _go_ [fare].
  feallan ( 117), _fall, flow_.
  fealu, _fallow, pale, dark_; nom. pl.m., fealwe.
  fawe (fa, fawa), pl., _few_.
  fela (indeclinable), _much, many_ (with gen.).
  feld ( 51), m., _field_.
  fell (fel), n., _fell, skin, hide_.
  fng, see fn.
  f[e,]n-hli, n., _fen-slope_.
  f[e,]n-hop, n., _fen-retreat_.
  feoh, n., _cattle, property_ [fee]; gen. and dat. sing., fos, fo.
  feohgfre, _greedy of property, avaricious_.
  feohtan ( 110), _fight_.
  fol, see feallan.
  fond ( 68, (3)), m., _enemy, fiend_.
  fond-grp, f., _fiend-grip_.
  feor ( 96, (4)), adj., _far, far from_ (with dat.).
  feor, adv., _far, far back_ (time).
  feorh, m., n., _life_.
  feorh-b[e,]nn, f., _life-wound, mortal wound_.
  feorh-l[e,]gu, f., _laying down of life_. (See p.146, Note on l.13.
      [[_Beowulf_ 2800]])
  feorh-soc, _life-sick, mortally wounded_.
  feorm (fiorm), f., _use, benefit_ (_food, provisions_) [farm].
  feormian ( 130), _eat, devour_.
  feorran, _from afar_.
  fowertig, _forty_; gen., fowertiges ( 91, Note 1).
  ferh (fer), m., _heart, mind, spirit_.
  f[e,]rian ( 125), _carry, transport_ [to ferry];
    f[e,]rede in forwege 152, 5 [[_Wanderer_ 81]] = _carried away_.
  fers, n., _verse_ [Lat. versus].
  fersc, _fresh_.
  ferloca (ferh-), m., _heart, mind, spirit_ [heart-locker].
  ft, see ft.
  fetor, f., _fetter_ [ft]; instr. pl., feterum.
  feer, f., _feather_; acc. pl., fera.
  fierd, f., _English army_ [faran].
  ff, _five_.
  fftene, _fifteen_.
  fftig, _fifty_; gen. sing., fftiges ( 91, Note 1); dat. pl.,
      fftegum ( 91, Note 3).
  findan ( 110), _find_.
  finger, m., _finger_.
  Finnas, m. pl., _Fins_.
  fiorm, see feorm.
  fras, m. pl., _men_ [feorh]; gen. pl., fra; dat. pl., frum.
  firrest (fierrest), see feor ( 96,(4)).
  first, m., _time, period_.
  fisca (fiscna), m., _fishing_.
  fiscere, m., _fisherman_.
  fiscna, see fisca.
  flon ( 118, II.), _flee_.
  flotan ( 109), _float_.
  fl[e,]t, n., _floor of the hall_.
  fld, m., _flood, wave_.
  folc, n., _folk, people_.
  folc-cwn, f., _folk-queen_.
  folc-cyning, m., _folk-king_.
  folcgefeoht, n., _folk-fight, battle, general engagement_.
  fold-bold, n., _earth-building, hall_.
  folde, f., _earth, land, country_ [feld].
  folm, f., _hand_ [flan = _feel_].
  fn ( 118), _seize, capture, take_ [fang];
    t rce fn = _come to (ascend) the throne_.
  for ( 94, (1)), _for, on account of_;
    for :m (e), for on (e), _because_;
    for on, for y:, for :m (for-m), _therefore_.
  fr, see faran.
  forbrnan ( 127), _burn thoroughly_ [for is intensive, like Lat.
      per].
  forgiefan (-gifan) ( 115), _give, grant_.
  forh[e,]rgian ( 130), _harry, lay waste_.
  forhogdnis, f., _contempt_.
  forht, _fearful, afraid_.
  forhwga, _about, at least_.
  forl:tan ( 117), _abandon, leave_.
  forlt, forlton, see forl:tan.
  forma, _first_;
    forman se, _the first time_ (instr.).
  forniman ( 114), _take off, destroy_.
  forsp[e,]ndan ( 127), _spend, squander_.
  forst[o,]ndan (-standan) ( 116), _understand_.
  forswpan ( 117), _sweep away_; pret. 3d sing. indic., forswop.
  forsw[e,]rian ( 116), _forswear_ (with dat.); past part., forsworen.
  for, _forth, forward_.
  forolian ( 130), _miss, go without_ (with dat.) [not to _thole_
      or experience].
  forweg, m., _way forth_;
    in forwege, _away_.
  ft ( 68, (1)), m. _foot_.
  Fr:na, m., _Frene_.
  frtwe, f. pl., _fretted armor, jewels_ [fret].
  fram, see fr[o,]m.
  fra, m., _lord, Lord_.
  fra-drihten, m., _lord, master_.
  frfran ( 130), _console, cheer_ [frfor].
  fr[e,]mde, _strange, foreign_;
     fr[e,]mdan, _the strangers_.
  fr[e,]mman ( 125), _accomplish, perform, support_ [to frame].
  fr[e,]msumnes (-nis), f., _kindness, benefit_.
  fro (fro), _free_; gen. pl., frora (frora).
  frodm, m., _freedom_.
  frolc, _noble_ [free-like].
  from:g, m., _free kinsman_.
  frond ( 68, (3)), m., _friend_.
  frondlas, _friendless_.
  frondlce, _in a friendly manner_.
  frorig, _cold, chill_ [froran].
  frora, see fro.
  fri, m., n., _peace, security_ [bel-_fry_].
  frd, _old, sage, prudent_.
  frfor, f., _comfort, consolation, alleviation_;
    fyrena frfre 137, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 629]] = _as an alleviation of
      outrages_ (dat.).
  fr[o,]m (fram) ( 94, (1)), _from, by_.
  fr[o,]m, adv., _away, forth_.
  fruma, m., _origin, beginning_ [fr[o,]m].
  frumsceaft, f., _creation_.
  fugela, see fugol.
  fugelere, m., _fowler_.
  fugol (fugel), m., _fowl, bird_; gen. pl., fugela.
  ful, n., _cup, beaker_.
  fl, _foul_.
  flian ( 130), _grow foul, decompose_.
  full (ful), adj., _full_ (with gen.);
    be fullan, _fully, perfectly_.
  full (ful) adv., _fully, very_.
  fultum, m., _help_.
  furor (furur), adv., _further_.
  furum, adv., _even_.
  fyl, see feallan.
  fyren (firen), f., _crime, violence, outrage_.
  fyrhtu, f., _fright, terror_; dat. sing., fyrhtu.
  fyrst, adj., superlative, _first, chief_.
  fy:san ( 126), _make ready, prepare_ [fs = _ready_];
    ge gefy:sed 137, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 631]] = _ready for battle_.


#G.#

  gd, n., _lack_.
  g:st, see gst.
  gafol, n., _tax, tribute_.
  galan ( 116), _sing_ [nightingale].
  glnes, f., _lust, impurity_.
  gn ( 134), _go_.
  gr, m., _spear_ [gore, gar-fish].
  gr-wiga, m., _spear-warrior_.
  gst (g:st), m., _spirit, ghost_.
  gstlc (g:stlc), _ghastly, terrible_.
  ge, _and_; see :ger.
  g, _ye_; see .
  geador, _together_.
  ge:metigian ( 130), _disengage from_ (with acc. of person and gen.
      of thing) [empty].
  gernan ( 127), _gain by running_ [iernan].
  gap, _spacious_.
  gar, n., _year_; gen. pl., gara, is used adverbially = _of yore,
      formerly_.
  gardg, m., _day of yore_.
  geare (gearo, gearwe), _readily, well, clearly_ [yarely].
  Gat, m., _a Geat, the Geat_ (i.e. Beowulf).
  Gatas, m. pl., _the Geats_ (a people of South Sweden).
  Gat-mecgas, m. pl., _Geat men_ (= the fourteen who accompanied
      Beowulf to Heorot).
  geborscipe, m., _banquet, entertainment_.
  gebtan ( 126), _make amends for_ [bt].
  gebdan ( 102), _wait, bide one's time_ (intrans.); _endure,
      experience_ (trans., with acc.).
  gebind, n., _commingling_.
  gebindan ( 110), _bind_.
  gebrowan ( 109), _brew_.
  gebrowen, see gebrowan.
  gebd, gebn, see ban ( 126, Note 2).
  gebyrd, n., _rank, social distinction_.
  gecosan ( 109), _choose, decide_.
  gecnwan ( 117), _know, understand_.
  gecoren, see gecosan.
  gecringan ( 110), _fall, die_ [cringe].
  ged:lan ( 126), _deal out, give_;
    dae ged:lde 152, 7 [[_Wanderer_ 83]] = _apportioned to death_
      (dat.), or, _tore (?) in death_ (instr.).
  gedafenian ( 130), _become, befit, suit_ (impersonal, usually with
      dat., but with acc. 112, 10).
  gedgan ( 126), _endure, survive_.
  gedn ( 135), _do, cause, effect_.
  gedrg, n., _company_.
  gedrosan ( 109), _fall, fail_.
  gedriht (gedryht), n., _band, troop_.
  gedrogen, see drogan.
  gedrync, n., _drinking_.
  ge[e,]ndian ( 130), _end, finish_.
  gefaran ( 116), _go, die_.
  gefa, m., joy.
  gefeaht, see gefeohtan.
  gefeh, see gefon.
  gefng, see gefn.
  gefeoht, n., _fight, battle_.
  gefeohtan ( 110), _fight_.
  gefon ( 118, v.), _rejoice at_ (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., gefeah,
      gefeh.
  gefra, m., _companion, comrade_ [co-farer].
  gefleman ( 126), _put to flight_ [flon].
  gefohten, see gefeohtan.
  gefn ( 118, vii.), _seize_.
  gefr, see gefaran.
  gefr:ge, n., _hearsay, report_;
    mne gefr:ge (instr.) 141, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 777]] = _as I have heard
      say, according to my information_.
  gefr[e,]mman ( 125), _perform, accomplish, effect_.
  gefultumian ( 130), _help_ [fultum].
  gefylce, n., _troop, division_ [folc]; dat. pl., gefylcum, gefylcium.
  gefyllan ( 127), _fill_ (with gen.); past part. pl., f., gefylda.
  gegl[e,]ngan ( 127), _adorn_.
  gehtland, n., _promised land_ [gehtan = _to promise_].
  gehealdan ( 117), _hold, maintain_.
  geheran (gehy:ran) ( 126), _hear_.
  gehersumnes, f., _obedience_.
  gehola, m., _protector_ [helan].
  gehw ( 77, Note), _each_;
    on healfa gehwone 142, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 801]] (see Note 140, 15
      [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. Observe that the pron. may, as here, be masc.
      and the gen. fem.).
  gehwer ( 77, Note), _each, either, both_.
  gehwylc (gehwilc) ( 77, Note), _each_ (with gen. pl.See Note
      140,15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]).
  gehwyrfan ( 127), _convert, change_.
  gehy:dan ( 126), _hide, conceal, consign_.
  gehygd, f., n., _thought, purpose_.
  gehy:ran, see geheran.
  gehy:rnes, f., _hearing_;
    eal  h in gehy:rnesse geleornian meahte 115, 14 = _all things
      that he could learn by hearing_.
  gel:dan ( 126), _lead_.
  gel:red, part.-adj., _learned_; superlative, gel:redest.
  gelafian ( 130), _lave_.
  gel[e,]nge, _along of, belonging to_ (with dat.).
  geleornian (-liornian) ( 130), _learn_.
  gelce, _likewise_; _in like manner to_ (with dat.).
  gelefan (gely:fan) ( 126), _believe_;
    t ho on :nigne eorl gely:fde 137, 6 [[_Beowulf_ 628]] = _that
      she believed in any earl_.
  gelimpan ( 110), _happen, be fulfilled_.
  gelimplc, _proper, fitting_.
  gely:fan, see gelefan.
  gely:fed, _weak, infirm_ [left (hand)].
  gmde, see geman.
  gemet, n., _meter, measure, ability_.
  gemtan ( 126), _meet_.
  gem[o,]n, see gemunan.
  gemunan ( 136), _remember_; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., gem[o,]n;
      pret. sing., gemunde.
  gemynd, n., _memory, memorial_;
    t gemyndum 147, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2805]] = _as a memorial_.
  gemyndgian (-mynian) ( 130), _remember_;
    mid hine gemyndgade 115, 15 = _he treasured in his memory_;
    gemyne m:ro 138, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 660]] = _be mindful of glory_
      (imperative 2d sing.).
  gemyndig, _mindful of_ (with gen.).
  genp, see genpan.
  geneahhe, _enough, often_;
    genehost, superlative, _very often_.
  genip, n., _mist, darkness_.
  genpan ( 102), _grow dark_.
  genwian ( 130), _renew_.
  genh, _enough_.
  genumen, see niman.
  geoc, n., _yoke_.
  gocor, _dire, sad_.
  geogo, f., _youth, young people, young warriors_. (See dugu.)
  geond (giond) ( 94, (2)), _throughout_ [yond].
  geondhweorfan ( 110), _pass over, traverse, recall_;
    onne mga gemynd md geondhweorfe 150, 15 [[_Wanderer_ 51]] =
      _then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen_.
  geondscawian ( 130), survey, review;
    georne geondscawa 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _eagerly surveys
      them_.
  geond[e,]nc(e)an ( 128), _think over, consider_.
  geong ( 96, (2)), _young_;
    giengest, (gingest), superlative, _youngest, latest, last_.
  geong = g[o,]ng, see g[o,]ngan (imperative 2d sing.).
  gong (gong), see g[o,]ngan (pret. 3d sing.).
  georn (giorn), _eager, desirous, zealous, sure_ [yearn].
  georne, _eagerly, certainly_;
    wiste  geornor 143, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 822]] = _knew the more
      certainly_.
  geornfulnes, f., _eagerness, zeal_.
  geornlce, _eagerly, attentively_.
  geornor, see georne.
  ger[e,]cednes, f., _narration_ [r[e,]ccan].
  gerisenlc, _suitable, becoming_.
  gery:man ( 126), _extend_, (trans.) [rm].
  ges:liglc, _happy, blessed_ [silly].
  gesamnode, see ges[o,]mnian.
  gesceaft, f., _creature, creation, destiny_ [scieppan].
  gesceap, n., _shape, creation, destiny_ [scieppan].
  gescieldan ( 127), _shield, defend_.
  gesealde, see ges[e,]llan.
  geseglian ( 130), _sail_.
  geselda, m., _comrade_.
  ges[e,]llan ( 128), _give_.
  geson (geson) ( 118), _see_, observe; pres. indic. 3d sing.,
      gesih.
  geset, n., _habitation, seat_.
  ges[e,]ttan ( 127), _set, place, establish_.
  gesewen, see son, geson (past part.).
  gesewenlc, _seen, visible_ [seen-like].
  gesiglan ( 127), _sail_.
  gesih, see geson.
  gesittan ( 115, Note 2), _sit_ (trans., as _to sit a horse, to sit
      a boat_, etc.); _sit, sit down_ (intrans.).
  geslgen, see slan ( 118).
  ges[o,]mnian ( 130), _assemble, collect_.
  ges[o,]mnung, f., _collection, assembly_.
  gesth, see gestgan.
  gestaelian ( 130), _establish, restore_ [standan].
  gesteal, n., _establishment, foundation_ [stall].
  gestgan ( 102), _ascend, go_ [stile, stirrup, sty (= a _rising_
      on the eye)].
  gestrangian ( 130), _strengthen_.
  gestron, n., _property_.
  gestry:nan ( 126), _obtain, acquire_ [gestron].
  gesweorcan ( 110), _grow dark, become sad_;
    For on ic ge[e,]ncan ne mg geond s woruld for hwan mdsefa mn
      ne gesweorce 151, 3-4 [[lines 58-59]] = _Therefore in this world
      I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow "black as
      night."_ (Brooke.)
  geswcan ( 102), _cease, cease from_ (with gen.).
  getl, n., _something told, narrative_.
  getruma, m., _troop, division_.
  geanc, m., n., _thought_.
  geeah, see geicgan.
  ge[e,]nc(e)an ( 128), _think, remember, understand, consider_.
  geodan ( 126), _join_.
  geode (-ode), n., _language, tribe_.
  geodnis, f., _association_;
    but in 112, 2 this word is used to render the Lat. _appetitus_ =
      _desire_.
  geicg(e)an ( 115, Note 2), _take, receive_; pret. indic. 3d sing.,
      geeah.
  geungen, part.-adj., _distinguished, excellent_ [on, _to thrive_].
  geyldig, _patient_ [olian].
  geweald (gewald), n., _control, possession, power_ [wield].
  geweorc, n., _work, labor_.
  geweorian ( 130), _honor_ [to attribute _worth_to].
  gewcian ( 130), _dwell_.
  gewin(n), n., _strife, struggle_.
  gewindan ( 110), _flee_ [wend].
  gewissian ( 130), _guide, direct_.
  gewtan ( 102), _go, depart_.
  geworht, see gewyrcan.
  gewrit, n., _writing, Scripture_.
  gewunian ( 130), _be accustomed, be wont_.
  gewyrc(e)an ( 128), _work, create, make, produce_.
  gid(d), n., _word, speech_.
  giefan ( 115), _give_.
  giefstl, m., _gift-stool, throne_.
  giefu (gifu), f., _gift_.
  gielp (gilp), m., n., _boast_ [yelp].
  geman (gman) ( 126), _endeavor, strive_.
  get (gt, gy:t), _yet, still_.
  gif (gyf), _if_ [not related to _give_].
  gifee (gyfee), _given, granted_.
  gilp, see gielp.
  gilp-cwide, m., _boasting speech_ [_yelp_-speech].
  gingest, see geong (adj.).
  gioho (gehu), f., _care, sorrow, grief_.
  gi (i), _formerly, of old_.
  gld (gl:d), _glad_.
  glaw, _wise, prudent_.
  glwstf, m., _glee, joy_; instr. pl.(used adverbially),
      glwstafum 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _joyfully_.
  God, m., _God_.
  gd ( 96, (3)), _good_;
    mid his gdum 115, 12 = _with his possessions (goods)_.
  godcund, _divine_ [God].
  godcundlce, _divinely_.
  gold, n., _gold_.
  gold-:ht, f., _gold treasure_.
  gold-fh, _gold-adorned_.
  gold-hroden, part.-adj., _gold-adorned_.
  goldwine, m., _prince, giver of gold, lord_ [gold-friend].
  gomel (gomol), _old, old man_.
  g[o,]ngan (gangan) ( 117), _go_ [gang]; imperative 2d sing., geong;
      pret. sing., gong, gong, gng; past part., geg[o,]ngen,
      gegangen.
    The most commonly used pret. is ode, which belongs to gn (134).
  Gotland, n., _Jutland_ (in _Ohthere's Second Voyage_), _Gothland_
      (in_Wulfstan's Voyage_).
  gram, _grim, angry, fierce, the angry one_.
  grp, f., _grasp, clutch, claw_.
  grtan ( 126), _greet, attack, touch_.
  grwan ( 117, (2)), _grow_.
  gryre-lo, n., _terrible song_ [grisly lay].
  guma, m., _man, hero_ [groom; see  65, Note1].
  g, f., _war, battle_.
  g-bill, n., _sword_ [war-bill].
  g-gew:de, n., _armor_ [war-weeds].
  g-hr, f., _war-fame_.
  g-wine, m., _sword_ [war-friend].
  gyddian ( 130), _speak formally_, chant [giddy; the original meaning
      of _giddy_ was _mirthful_, as when one sings].
  gyf, see gif.
  gyfee, see gifee.
  gyldan (gieldan) ( 110), _pay_; indic. 3d sing., gylt.
  gylden, _golden_ [gold].


#H.#

  habban ( 133), _have_.
  hd, m., _order, rank, office, degree_ [-hood, -head].
  hfta, m., _captive_.
  hgel (hagol), m., _hail_; instr. sing., hagle.
  hglfaru, f., _hail-storm_ [hail-faring].
  hle, see hle.
  h:l, f., _hail, health, good luck_.
  hle (hle), m., _hero, warrior_.
  h:t, see htan.
  h:en, _heathen_.
  H:um (t H:um), _Haddeby_ (= _Schleswig_).
  hl, _hale, whole_.
  hlettan ( 127), _greet, salute_ [to hail].
  Halfd[e,]ne, _Halfdane_ (proper name).
  hlga, m., _saint_.
  Hlgoland, _Halgoland_ (in ancient Norway).
  hlig, _holy_.
  hlignes, f., _holiness_.
  hm, m., _home_; dat. sing., hme, hm (p.104, Note);
    used adverbially in hm ode 112, 18 = _went home_.
  hand, see h[o,]nd.
  hr, _hoary, gray_.
  ht, _hot_.
  htan ( 117, Note 2), _call, name, command_; pret. sing., heht, ht.
  htheort, _hot-hearted_.
  htte, see htan.
  h, ho, hit ( 53), _he, she, it_.
  hafod, n., _head_.
  hah ( 96, (2)), _high_; acc. sing, m., hanne.
  hah-s[e,]le, m., _high hall_.
  hahungen, _highly prosperous, aristocratic_ [hah + past part. of
      on (118)].
  healdan ( 117), _hold, govern, possess_;
    144, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 2720]] = _hold up, sustain_.
  healf, adj., _half_.
  healf, f., _half, side, shore_.
  heall, f., _hall_.
  heals, m., _neck_.
  han, _abject, miserable_.
  hanne, see hah.
  heard, _hard_.
  heard-hicgende, _brave-minded_ [hard-thinking].
  hearm-scaa, m., _harmful foe_ [harm-scather].
  hearpe, f., _harp_.
  heao-dor, _battle-brave_.
  heao-m:re, _famous in battle_.
  heao-wylm, m., _flame-surge, surging of fire_ [battle-welling].
  hawan ( 117), _hew, cut_.
  h[e,]bban, hf, hfon, gehafen ( 117), _heave, lift, raise_.
  h[e,]fig, _heavy, oppressive_.
  heht, see htan.
  helan ( 114), _conceal_.
  h[e,]ll, f., _hell_.
  helm, m., _helmet_.
  Helmingas, m. pl., _Helmings_ (Wealtheow, Hrothgar's queen, is a
      Helming).
  help, f., _help_.
  helpan ( 110), _help_ (with dat.).
  heofon, m., _heaven_.
  heofonlc, _heavenly_.
  heofonrce, n., _kingdom of heaven_.
  hold, see healdan.
  heolstor (-ster), n., _darkness, concealment, cover_ [holster].
  heora (hiera), see h.
  heord, f., care, guardianship [hoard].
  heoro-drorig, _bloody_ [sword-dreary].
  Heorot, _Heorot, Hart_ (the famous hall which Hrothgar built).
  heorte, f., _heart_.
  hr, _here, hither_;
    in the _Chronicle_ the meaning frequently is _at this date, in this
      year_: 99,1.
  h[e,]re, m., _Danish army_.
  h[e,]renis, f., _praise_.
  h[e,]rgian ( 130), _raid, harry, ravage_ [h[e,]re].
  h[e,]rgung, f., _harrying, plundering_.
  h[e,]rian (h[e,]rigean) ( 125), _praise_.
  hrsumedon, see hersumian.
  ht, see htan.
  hider (hieder), _hither_.
  hiera, see h.
  heran (hy:ran) ( 126), _hear, belong_.
  hierde, m., _shepherd, instigator_ [keeper of a _herd_].
  hierdebc, f., _pastoral treatise_ [shepherd-book, atranslation of
      Lat. _Cura Pastoralis_].
  herra, see hah.
  hersumian (hy:r-, hr-) ( 130), _obey_ (with dat.).
  hige (hyge), m., _mind, heart_.
  hige-ihtig, _bold-hearted_.
  hild, f., _battle_.
  hilde-dor, _battle-brave_.
  hilde-mecg, m., _warrior_.
  hilde-sd, _battle-sated_.
  hin-fs, _eager to be gone_ [hence-ready].
  hira, see h.
  hl:w (hlw), m., _mound, burial mound_ [Lud_low_ and other
      place-names, _low_ meaning _hill_].
  hlford, m., _lord, master_ [loaf-ward?].
  hleahtor, m., _laughter_.
  hlo, m., _refuge, protector_ [lee].
  hlfian ( 130), _rise, tower_.
  hlyn, m., _din, noise_.
  hlynsian ( 130), _resound_.
  hof, n., _court, abode_.
  hogode, see hycgan.
  holm, m., _sea, ocean_.
  h[o,]nd (hand), f., _hand_;
    on gehwre h[o,]nd, _on both sides_.
  hord, m., n., _hoard, treasure_.
  hordcofa, m., _breast, heart_ [hoard-chamber]
  hors, n., _horse_.
  horshwl, m., _walrus_.
  hrdwyrde, _hasty of speech_ [hrd = _quick_].
  hrgel, n., _garment_; dat. sing., hrgle.
  hrn, m., _reindeer_.
  hrae, _quickly, soon_ [_rath_-er].
  hro (hroh), _rough, cruel, sad_.
  hrosan ( 109), _fall_.
  hrran ( 126), _stir_.
  hreer, m., n., _breast, purpose_; dat. sing., hrere.
  hrm, m., _rime, hoarfrost_.
  hrmceald, _rime-cold_.
  hring, m., _ring, ring-mail_.
  hr, f. (?), _snow-storm_.
  hrf, m., _roof_.
  Hrones nss, literally _Whale's Ness, whale's promontory_;
    see nss.
  hrse, f., _earth_ [hrosan: deposit].
  hryre, m., _fall, death_ [hrosan].
  hry:er, n., _cattle_ [rinder-pest].
  hryig, _ruined_ (?), _storm-beaten_; nom. pl.m., hryge.
  h, _how_.
  Humbre, f., _river Humber_.
  hund, _hundred_.
  hunig, n., _honey_.
  hunta, m., _hunter_.
  hunto (-ta), m., _hunting_.
  hru, adv., _about_.
  hs, n., _house_.
  hw, hwt ( 74), _who?_ _what?_ sw hwt sw (77, Note),
      _whatsoever_;
    indefinite, _any one, anything_;
    for hwan (instr.), _wherefore_.
  hwl, m., _whale_.
  hwlhunta, m., _whale-hunter_.
  hwlhunta, m., _whale-fishing_.
  hw:r, _where?_ hw:r ... sw, _wheresoever_;
    wel hw:r, _nearly everywhere_.
  hwthwugu, _something_.
  hwer, _whether, which of two?_
  hwre, _however, nevertheless_.
  hwne, see hwn.
  hweorfan ( 110), _turn, go_.
  hwider, _whither_.
  hwl, f., _while, time_;
    ealle  hwle e, _all the while that_;
    hwlum (instr. pl.), _sometimes_.
  hwilc (hwylc, hwelc) ( 74, Note 1), _which?_ _what?_
  hwn, n., _a trifle_;
    hwne (instr. sing.), _somewhat, a little_.
  hw[o,]nan, _when_.
  hy:, see he.
  hycgan ( 132), _think, resolve_; pret. 3d sing., hogode.
  hy:d, f., _hide, skin_.
  hyge, see hige.
  hyra (hiera), see h.
  hy:ran, see heran.
  hyrde, see hierde.
  hys (his), see h.
  hyt (hit), see h.


#I.#

  ic ( 72), _I_.
  del, _idle, useless, desolate_.
  ides, f., _woman, lady_.
  ieldra, adj., see eald.
  ieldra, m., _an elder, parent, ancestor_.
  iernan (yrnan) ( 112), _run_.
  gl[o,]nd (gland), n., _island_.
  ilca (ylca), _the same_ [of that ilk].
  Ilfing, _the Elbing_.
  in, _in, into_ (with dat. and acc.);
    in on, _in on, to, toward_.
  inbryrdnis (-nes), f., _inspiration, ardor_.
  indryhten, _very noble_.
  ing[o,]ng, m., _entrance_.
  innan, adv., _within, inside_;
    on innan, _within_.
  innanbordes, adv.-gen., _within borders, at home_.
  inne, adv., _within, inside_.
  intinga, m., _cause, sake_.
  inweardlce, _inwardly, fervently_.
  inwid-sorg (inwit-sorh), f., _sorrow caused by an enemy_.
  inwit-anc, m., _hostile intent_.
  raland, n., _Ireland_ (but in _Ohthere's Second Voyage, Iceland_ is
      probably meant).
  ren, n., _iron, sword_; gen. pl., renna, rena.
  ren-b[e,]nd, m., f., _iron-band_.
  u, see gu.


#K.#

  kynerce, see cynerce.
  kyning, see cyning.
  kyrtel, m., _kirtle, coat_.


#L.#

  L:den, _Latin_.
  L:dengeode (-ode), n., _Latin language_.
  L:denware ( 47), m. pl., _Latin people, Romans_.
  l:fan ( 126), _leave_.
  l:ge, see licgan.
  L:land, n., _Laaland_ (in Denmark).
  l:n, n., _loan_;
    t l:ne 121, 2 = _as a loan_.
  l:ne, adj., _as a loan, transitory, perishable_.
  l:ran ( 126), _teach, advise, exhort_ [lr].
  l:ssa, l:sta, see ly:tel.
  l:stan ( 127), _last, hold out_ (intrans.); _perform, achieve_
      (trans.).
  l:tan ( 117), _let, leave_.
  lf, f., _something left, remnant, heirloom_ (often a _sword_);
    t lfe, _as a remnant, remaining_.
  laguld, f., _sea_ [lake-way, ld = _leading, direction, way_].
  land, see l[o,]nd.
  lang, see l[o,]ng.
  Langaland, n., _Langeland_ (in Denmark).
  lr, f., _lore, teaching_.
  lrcwide, m., _precept, instruction_, [cwide < cwean].
  lrow, m., _teacher_ [lr + ow].
  lst, m., _track, footprint_ [shoemaker's last];
    on lst(e), _in the track of, behind_ (with dat.).
  l, _loathsome, hateful_.
  las, _loose, free from, bereft of_ (with gen.).
  lasung, f., _leasing, deception, falsehood_.
  l[e,]cgan ( 125, Note), _lay_.
  lfdon, see lefan.
  leger, n., _lying in, illness_ [licgan].
  l[e,]ng, see l[o,]nge.
  l[e,]ngra, see l[o,]ng.
  lod, m., _prince, chief_.
  lod, f., _people, nation_ (the plural has the same meaning).
  lod-scipe, m., _nation_ [people-ship].
  lof, _dear_ [lief].
  leoht, adj., _light_.
  loht, n., _light, brightness_.
  leornere, m., _learner, disciple_.
  leornian ( 130), _learn_.
  leornung (liornung), f., _learning_.
  lo, n., _song_ [lay?].
  locrft, m., _poetic skill_ [lay-craft].
  los[o,]ng, n., _song, poem_.
  lt, see l:tan.
  libban ( 133), _live_; pres. part., lifigende, _living, alive_.
  lc, n., _body, corpse_ [lich-gate, Lichfield].
  licgan ( 115, Note 2), _lie, extend, flow, lie dead_; 3d sing.
      indic. pres., lige, l.
  lchama (-h[o,]ma), m., _body_ [body-covering].
  lcian ( 130), _please_ (with dat.) [like].
  lc-sr, n., _body-sore, wound in the body_.
  lefan (lfan) ( 126), _permit, allow_ (with dat.) [grant _leave_
      to].
  lf, n., _life_.
  lf-dagas, m. pl., _life-days_.
  lifigende, see libban.
  lg, m., _flame, fire_.
  lige, see licgan.
  lim, n., _limb_.
  list, f., _cunning_;
    dat. pl., listum, is used adverbially = _cunningly_.
  l, see licgan.
  lof, m., _praise, glory_.
  l[o,]nd (land), n., _land, country_.
  l[o,]ng (lang) ( 96, (2)), _long_.
  l[o,]nge (lange) ( 97, (2)), _long_;
    l[o,]nge on dg, _late in the day_.
  lufan, see lufu.
  lufian (lufigean) ( 131), _love_.
  luflce, _lovingly_.
  lufu, f., _love_; dat. sing. (weak), lufan.
  lungre, _quickly_.
  lust, m., _joy_ [lust];
    on lust, _joyfully_.
  ly:t, indeclinable, _little, few_ (with partitive gen.).
  ly:tel (ltel) ( 96, (2)), _little, small_.


#M.#

  m, see micle ( 97, (2)).
  mg, see magan.
  m:g, m., _kinsman_; nom. pl., mgas ( 27, (2)).
  mgen n., _strength, power_ [might and _main_].
  mgen-[e,]llen, n., _main strength, mighty courage_.
  m:g, f., _tribe_.
  mghd, m., _maidenhood, virginity_.
  m:l-gesceaft, f., _appointed time_ [m:l = _meal, time_].
  m:ran ( 126), _make famous, honor_.
  m:re, _famous, glorious, notorious_.
  m:ro (m:ro, m:r), f., _glory, fame_.
  msseprost, m., _mass-priest_.
  m:st, see micel.
  magan ( 137), _be able, may_.
  mgas, see m:g.
  magu (mago), m., _son, man_.
  maguegn, m., _vassal, retainer_.
  man(n), see m[o,]n(n).
  mancus, m., _mancus, half-crown_; gen. pl., mancessa.
  mnd:d, f., _evil deed_.
  manig, see m[o,]nig.
  manigfeald, see m[o,]nigfeald.
  mra, see micel.
  maelian ( 130), _harangue, speak_.
  mum (mum), m., _gift, treasure, jewel_; gen. pl., mma.
  mumgyfa, m., _treasure-giver, lord_.
  mum-wela, m., _wealth of treasure_.
  m, see ic.
  meaht, f., _might, power_.
  meahte, see magan.
  mearc, f., _boundary, limit_ [mark, march].
  mearg (mearh), m., _horse_; nom. pl., maras.
  mear, m., _marten_.
  mec, see ic.
  medmicel, _moderately large, short, brief_.
  medu (medo), m., _mead_.
  medu-b[e,]nc, f., _mead-bench_.
  medu-ful, n., _mead-cup_.
  medu-heall, f., _mead-hall_.
  m[e,]n, see m[o,]n(n).
  m[e,]ngan ( 127), _mingle, mix_.
  m[e,]nigu (m[e,]nigeo), f., _multitude_ [many].
  m[e,]nniscnes, f., _humanity, incarnation_ [man].
  meolc, f., _milk_.
  More, _Mre_ (in Sweden).
  m[e,]re, m., _lake, mere, sea_ [mermaid].
  Meretn, m., _Merton_ (in Surrey).
  mtan ( 126), _meet, find_.
  Metod (Meotod, Metud), m., _Creator, God_.
  metod-sceaft, f., _appointed doom, eternity_.
  micel ( 96, (3)), _great, mighty, strong, large_ [mickle];
    mra, _more, stronger, larger_.
  micle (micele), _greatly, much_.
  miclum, ( 93, (4)), _greatly_.
  mid, _with, amid, among_ (with dat. and acc.).
  middangeard, m., _earth, world_ [middle-yard].
  middeweard, _midward, toward the middle_.
  Mierce, m. pl., _Mercians_.
  mihte, see _magan_.
  ml, f., _mile_ [Lat. mille].
  mildheortnes, f., _mild-heartedness, mercy_.
  milts, f., _mildness, mercy_.
  mn ( 76), _my, mine_.
  mislc, _various_.
  missenlc, _various_.
  md, n., _mood, mind, courage_.
  mdcearig, _sorrowful of mind_.
  mdega, mdga, see mdig.
  mdgeanc, m., _purpose of mind_.
  mdig, _moody, brave, proud_.
  mdor, f., _mother_.
  mdsefa, m., _mind, heart_.
  m[o,]n(n) (man, mann) ( 68;  70, Note), m., _man, one, person,
      they_.
  mna, m., _moon_.
  mna ( 68, (1), Note), m., _month_ [mna]; dat. sing., mne.
  m[o,]n(n)cynn, n., _mankind_.
  m[o,]ndryhten, m., _liege lord_.
  m[o,]nian (manian) ( 130), _admonish_.
  m[o,]nig (manig, m[o,]neg, mnig), _many_.
  m[o,]nigfeald (manig-), _manifold, various_.
  mne, see mna.
  mr, m., _moor_.
  morgen, m., _morning_; dat. sing., morgen(n)e.
  moror-bealu (-bealo), n., _murder_ [murder-bale];
    see urfan.
  mste, see mtan.
  mtan ( 137), _may, be permitted, must_.
  mund-gripe, m., _hand-grip_.
  munuc, m., _monk_ [Lat. monachus].
  munuchd, m., _monkhood, monastic rank_.
  m, m., _mouth_.
  myntan ( 127), _be minded, intend_; pret. indic. 3d sing., mynte.
  mynster, n., _monastery_ [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., mynstre.
  my:re, f., _mare_ [mearh].
  myr, f., _joy, mirth_;
    mdes myre 142, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 811]] = _with joy of heart_.


#N.#

  n (n), _not_ [ne  = _n-ever_];
    n ne, _not, not at all_.
  nabban (p.32, Note), _not to have_.
  n:dre, f., _serpent, adder_.
  nfde, see nabban.
  n:fre, _never_.
  n:nig ( 77), _no one, no, none_.
  n:re, n:ren, n:ron, see  40, Note2.
  ns = ne ws, see  40, Note 2.
  nss, m., _ness, headland_.
  nht, see nht.
  nls (nles), _not at all_ [n ealles].
  nam, see niman.
  nama, see n[o,]ma.
  nmon, see niman.
  nn, _not one, no, none_ [ne n].
  nnwuht, n., _nothing_ [no whit].
  ne, _not_.
  n, _nor_;
    n ... n, _neither ... nor_.
  nah ( 96, (4)), _near_.
  nah, adv., _nigh, near, nearly, almost_; comparative, nar, _nearer_.
  neaht, see niht.
  nalcan (-l:can) ( 126), _draw near to, approach_ (with dat.).
  nar, see nah, adv.
  nat, n., _neat, cattle_.
  n[e,]mnan ( 127), _name_.
  neme, (nyme), _except, unless_.
  n[e,]rian ( 125), _save, preserve_.
  nten, see neten.
  nedbeearf, _needful, necessary_.
  nehst, see nah ( 96, (4)).
  neten (nten), n., _neat, beast, cattle_.
  nigontene, _nineteen_.
  niht (neaht) ( 68, (1), Note), _night_.
  nihthelm, m., _night-helm, shade of night_.
  nihtsca, m., _shadow of night_.
  niht-weorc, n., _night-work_.
  niman ( 114), _take, gain_ [nimble, numb].
  npan ( 102), _grow dark, darken_.
  nis, see  40, Note 2.
  n, m., _malice, violence_.
  nwe, _new, novel, startling_.
  n, see n.
  nht (nht, n-wiht), n., _not a whit, naught, nothing_; _not, not
      at all_.
  nhwer (nhwer), _neither_;
    nhwer n ... ne ... n ... ne 118, 8 = _neither ... nor_.
  nolde, noldon = ne wolde, ne woldon, see willan.
  n[o,]ma (nama), m., _name_.
  nor ( 97, (1)), _north, in the north, northwards_.
  noran ( 93, (5)), _from the north_;
    be noran, see  94, (4).
  Nor-D[e,]ne, m. pl., _North-Danes_.
  noreweard, _northward_.
  Norhymbre, m. pl., _Northumbrians_.
  Normanna, see Norm[o,]n.
  Norm[e,]n, see Norm[o,]n.
  normest, see nor.
  Norm[o,]n (-man) ( 68, (1)), _Norwegian_.
  noror, see nor.
  norryhte, _northward_.
  norweard, _northward_.
  Norweg, _Norway_.
  nose, f., _cape, naze_ [ness, nose].
  notu, f., _office, employment_.
  n, _now_; _now that, seeing that_;
    n  138, 13 [[_Beowulf_ 658]] = _now then_.
  ny:hst (nehst), see nah.
  nyme, see neme.
  nysse, see nytan.
  nyste, see nytan.
  nyt(t), _useful, profitable_.
  nytan (nitan < ne witan,  136), _not to know_; 3d sing. pret.,
      nysse, nyste.


#O.#

  of ( 94, (1)), _of, from, concerning_.
  ofer ( 94, (2)), _over, across, after, in spite of_ (see 144,14
      [[_Beowulf_ 2725]]);
    ofer eoran 142, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 803]] = _on earth_.
  ofer, adv., _over, across_.
  oferfran ( 126), _go over, traverse_.
  oferfrosan ( 109), _freeze over_.
  oferfroren, see oferfrosan.
  ofgiefan ( 115), _give up, relinquish_.
  ofost, f., _haste_.
  ofslgen, see ofslan.
  ofslan ( 118), _slay off, slay_.
  ofslge, see ofslan.
  oft, _oft, often_; superlative, oftost.
  on ( 94, (3)), _in, into, on, against, to, among, during_;
    on ff oe syx 109, 6= _into five or six parts_;
    on weg 140, 10 [[_Beowulf_ 764]] = _away_;
    on innan 144, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2716]] = _within_;
    on unriht 145, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 2740]] = _falsely_.
  onbrnan ( 126), _kindle, inspire_.
  oncy:, f., _distress, suffering_.
  [o,]nd (and), _and_.
  [o,]ndsaca, m., _adversary_.
  [o,]ndswarian ( 130), _answer_.
  [o,]ndweard, adj., _present_.
  onfng, see onfn.
  onfeohtan ( 110), _fight_.
  onfindan ( 110), _find out, discover_; pret. indic. 3d sing.,
      onfunde.
  onfn ( 118), _receive, seize violently_.
  onfunde, see onfindan.
  ongan, prep., _against, towards_ (with dat. and acc.).
  ongan, adv., _just across, opposite_.
  [O,]ngelcynn (Angel-), n., _Angle kin, English people, England_.
  [O,]ngelod (Angel-), f., _the English people or nation_.
  ongemang (-m[o,]ng), _among_ (with dat.).
  ongietan (-gitan) ( 115), _perceive, see, understand_.
  onginnan ( 110), _begin, attempt_.
  onltan ( 109), _bow, incline_ (intrans.) [lout = a stooper].
  onrdan ( 102), _ride against, make a raidon_.
  ons[e,]ndan ( 127), _send_.
  onsl:pan (onslpan) ( 126), _fall asleep, sleep_.
  onsp[o,]nnan ( 117), _loosen_ [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic.,
      onspon.
  onspringan ( 110), _spring apart, unspring_.
  onstl, m., _institution, supply_.
  onst[e,]llan ( 128), _establish_; pret. 3d sing. indic., onstealde.
  onwcnan ( 127), _awake_ (intrans.).
  onweald (-wald), m., _power, authority_ [wield].
  onw[e,]ndan ( 127), _change, overturn_ [to wind].
  r, n., _beginning_.
  o ( 94, (2)), _until, as far as_ (oftime and place);
    o t, o e, _until_.
  oberan ( 114), _bear away_.
  er, _other, second_;
    er ... er, _the one ... the other_.
  ofstan ( 127), _set to_ (a task).
  ofeallan ( 117) _fall off, decline_.
  oe, _or_;
    oe ... oe, _either ... or_.


#P.#

  plega, m., _play, festivity_.
  port, m., _port_ [Lat. portus].


#R.#

  rd, f., _raid_.
  r:can ( 126), _reach_; pret. 3d sing., r:hte.
  rst, see r[e,]st.
  Radingas, m. pl., _Reading_ (in Berkshire).
  r[e,]ccan ( 128), _narrate, tell_; pret. pl.indic., r[e,]hton,
      reahton.
  r[e,]ccelas, _reckless, careless_.
  r[e,]ced, n., _house, hall_.
  regnian (rnian) ( 130), _adorn, prepare_; past part., geregnad.
  regollc (-lec), _according to rule, regular_.
  rn-weard, m., _mighty warden, guard, champion_.
  r[e,]st (rst), f., _rest, resting-place, bed_.
  re, _fierce, furious_.
  rce, _rich, powerful, aristocratic_.
  rce, n., _realm, kingdom_ [bishopric].
  rcsian ( 130), _rule_.
  rdan ( 102), _ride_.
  rman ( 126), _count_ [rime].
  rinc, m., _man, warrior_.
  rd, f., _rood, cross_;
    rde tcen, _sign of the cross_.
  Rmware, m. pl., _Romans_.
  r[o,]nd (rand), m., _shield_.
  rn, f., _rune, secret meditation_ [to round = to whisper].
  rycene (ricene), _quickly, rashly_.
  ryhtnoranwind, m., _straight north-wind_.


#S.#

  s:, f., _sea_.
  s:-bt, m., _sea-boat_.
  s:d, n., _seed_.
  s:de, see s[e,]cgan.
  s:l, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly];
    on s:lum 137, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 644]] = _joyous, merry_.
  s:lan ( 126), _bind_.
  s:-lend ( 68, (3)), m., _seafarer_ (nom. and acc. pl.same as
      nom. and acc. sing.).
  sam ... sam, _whether ... or_.
  same, _similarly_;
    sw same, _just the same, in like manner_.
  samod, see s[o,]mod.
  sanct, m., f., _saint_ [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., sanct, f.,
      sancti, m.
  sang, see s[o,]ng.
  sr, f., n., _sore, pain, wound_.
  sr, adj., _sore, grievous_.
  sre, _sorely_.
  swan ( 117,) _sow_.
  swol, f., _soul_; oblique cases, sing., swle ( 39, Note).
  scacan (sceacan) ( 116), _shake, go, depart_; past part., scacen,
      sceacen.
  scadu-helm, m., _cover of night, shadow-covering_ [shadow-helm];
    scadu-helma gesceapu, see Note on 138, 2-6 [[lines 647-51]].
  sceal, see sculan.
  scap, n., _sheep_.
  scat, m., _corner, region, quarter_ [sheet];
    eoran scatta 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in the regions of earth_
      (gen. used as locative).
  scawi(g)an ( 130), _view, see_ [shew].
  scawung, f., _seeing_.
  sceolde, see sculan.
  scop (scp), see scieppan.
  scowyrhta, m., _shoe-maker_.
  sc[e,]an ( 116), _injure, scathe_ (with dat.).
  scieppan ( 116), _create_.
  Scieppend, m., _Creator_.
  scnan ( 102), _shine_.
  scip (scyp), n., _ship_.
  scipen, n., _stall_.
  sciprp, m., _ship-rope, cable_.
  scr, f., _shire, district_.
  Sciringeshal, m., _Sciringesheal_ (in Norway).
  scolde, see sculan.
  sc[o,]mu, f., _shame, dishonor_.
  Scng, f., _Skaane_ (southern district of the Scandinavian
      peninsula).
  scopgereord, n., _poetic language_.
  scran ( 102), _stride, stalk_.
  sculan ( 136;  137, Note 2), _shall, have to, ought_.
  Scyldingas, m. pl., _Scyldings, Danes_.
  scyp, see scip.
  Scyppend, see Scieppend.
  s, so, t ( 28;  28, Note3), _the_; _that_; _he, she, it_;
      _who, which, that_;
    s, _from then, afterwards, therefore_;
    s e (p.110, l.2), _with what_;
    y: ... t (p.110, ll.7-8), _for this reason ... because_;
    t :m ... sw, _to such an extent ... as_;
    y (), _the_ (adverbial, with comparatives);
    y: ... y:, _the ... the_.
  seah, see son.
  sealde, see s[e,]llan.
  searo-gimm, m., _artistic gem, jewel_.
  searo-n, m., _cunning hatred, plot_.
  searo-[o,]nc, m., _cunning thought, device_.
  Seaxe, m. pl., _Saxons, Saxony_.
  sc(e)an ( 128), _to seek, visit, meet_.
  s[e,]cg, m., _man, warrior_.
  s[e,]cgan ( 132), _say, tell_.
  sefa, m., _mind, spirit_.
  sfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sfte).
  segel, m., n., _sail_; dat. sing. = segle.
  seglian ( 130), _sail_.
  s[e,]le, m., _hall_.
  s[e,]ledram, m., _hall joy, festivity_.
  s[e,]le-ful, n., _hall cup_.
  s[e,]les[e,]cg, m., _hall warrior, retainer_.
  slest, _best_ (no positive).
  self (sylf), _self, himself_ (declined as strong or weak adjective).
  s[e,]llan (syllan) ( 128), _give_ [sell, han(d)sel].
  s[e,]mninga, _forthwith, straightway_.
  s[e,]ndan ( 127), _send_.
  so, see s.
  soc, _sick_.
  seofon (syfan), _seven_.
  seolh, m., _seal_; gen. sing. = soles ( 27, (3)).
  son ( 118), _see, look_.
  seonu, f., _sinew_; nom. pl., seonowe.
  sess, m., _seat_.
  sibb, f., _friendship, peace_ [gos_sip_].
  sidu (siodu), m., _custom, morality, good conduct_.
  se, see bon.
  siex, _six_;
    syxa (siexa) sum, see sum.
  siextig, _sixty_.
  sige, m., _victory_.
  sige-folc, n., _victorious people_.
  sige-las, _victory-less, of defeat_.
  sige-rf, victory-famed, _victorious_.
  sige-w:pen, n., _victory-weapon_.
  siglan ( 127), _sail_.
  Sillende, _Zealand_.
  sinc, n., _treasure, prize_.
  sinc-f:t, n., see 137, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 623]] [treasure-vat].
  sinc-[e,]gu, f., _receiving of treasure_ [icgan].
  sind, sint, sindon, see bon.
  singan ( 110), _sing_.
  sittan ( 115, Note 2), _sit, take position_.
  s, m., _journey, time_;
    forman se 139, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 741]] = _the first time_ (instr.
      sing.).
  sian ( 130), _journey_.
  sian, _after that, afterwards, after_.
  sl:p, m., _sleep_.
  sl:pan ( 117), _sleep_.
  slan ( 118), _slay_ [slow-worm].
  sltan ( 102), _slit, tear to pieces_.
  slen, _savage, perilous_.
  sml, _narrow_.
  smalost, see sml.
  snw, m., _snow_.
  snot(t)or, _wise, prudent_.
  shte, see scan.
  s[o,]mod (samod), _together_.
  sna, _soon_.
  s[o,]ng, m., n., _song, poem_.
  s[o,]ngcrft, m., _art of song and poetry_.
  sorg (sorh), f., _sorrow_.
  s, _true_.
  s, n., _truth_;
    t se, _for a truth, truly, verily_.
  s-fst, _truthful, just_.
  slce, _truly_.
  spd, f., _possessions, success, riches_ [speed].
  spdig, _rich, prosperous_.
  spell, n., _story, tale_ [gospel].
  spow, see spwan.
  spere, n., _spear_.
  spor, n., _track, footprint_.
  spwan ( 117), _succeed_ (impersonal with dat.).
  spr:c, f., _speech, language_.
  sprecan ( 115), _speak_.
  spyrian (spyrigean) ( 130), _follow_ (intrans.) [spor].
  stf, _staff, rod_; pl.= _literature, learning_.
  stlhrn, m., _decoy-reindeer_.
  stlwiere, _serviceable_ (see p.56, Note 2).
  st:r, n., _story, narrative_ [Lat. historia].
  st, n., _shore_.
  stn, m., _stone, rock_.
  stn-boga, m., _stone-arch_ [stone-bow].
  standan, see st[o,]ndan.
  stnhli (-hleo), n., _stone-cliff_.
  stapol, m., _column_ [staple].
  starian ( 125), _stare, gaze_.
  st[e,]de, m., _place_.
  stelan ( 114), _steal_.
  st[e,]nt, see st[o,]ndan.
  storbord, n., _starboard, right side of a ship_.
  st[e,]ppan ( 116), _step, advance_; pret. indic. 3d sing., stp.
  stilnes, f., _stillness, quiet_.
  st[o,]ndan ( 116), _stand_.
  stp, see st[e,]ppan.
  storm, m., _storm_.
  stw, f., _place_ [stow, and in names of places].
  strang, see str[o,]ng.
  str[e,]ngest, see str[o,]ng.
  str[o,]ng ( 96, (2)), _strong_.
  styccem:lum, _here and there_.
  sum ( 91, Note 2), _some, certain, a certain one_;
    h syxa sum 104, 25 = _he with five others_.
  sumera, see sumor.
  sumor, m., _summer_; dat. sing. = sumera.
  sumorlida, m., _summer-army_.
  sundor, _apart_.
  sunne, f., _sun_.
  sunu, m., _son_.
  s, _south, southwards_.
  san ( 93, (5)), _from the south_;
    be san, _south of_ ( 94, (4)).
  seweard, _southward_.
  sryhte, _southward_.
  sw (sw:), _so, as, how, asif_;
    sw sw, _just as, as far as_;
    sw ... sw, _the ... the, as ... as_;
    sw hwt sw, _whatsoever_ ( 77, Note).
  sw:s, _beloved, own_.
  sw, n., _track, footprint_ [swath].
  swaul, m.? n.?, _smoke_.
  swealh, see swelgan.
  swefan ( 115), _sleep, sleep the sleep of death_.
  swefn, n., _sleep, dream_.
  swg, m., _sound, noise_.
  swegle, _bright, clear_.
  swlan ( 126), _burn_ [sweal].
  swelgan ( 110), _swallow_; pret. indic. 3d sing., swealh; subj.,
      swulge.
  swellan ( 110), _swell_.
  Swoland, n., _Sweden_.
  Swom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_.
  sweotol, _clear_.
  sweotole, _clearly_.
  sw[e,]rian ( 116), _swear_.
  swte, _sweet_.
  swtnes (-nis), f., _sweetness_.
  swift (swyft), _swift_.
  swilc (swylc) ( 77), _such_.
  swilce, _in such manner, as, likewise_; _as if, as though_ (with
      subj.).
  swimman ( 110), _swim_.
  swn (swy:n), n., _swine, hog_.
  swnsung, f., _melody, harmony_.
  swe (swy:e), _very, exceedingly, greatly_.
  swost, _chiefly, almost_.
  swr, see sw[e,]rian.
  swulge, see swelgan.
  swuster ( 68, (2)), f., _sister_.
  swylce (swelce), see swilce.
  swy:n, see swn.
  swynsian ( 130), _resound_.
  swy:e, see swe.
  swy:-ferh, _strong-souled_.
  sylf, see self.
  syll, f., _sill, floor_.
  syllan, see s[e,]llan.
  symbel, n., _feast, banquet_.
  symle, _always_.
  synd, see bon.
  syn-dolh, n., _ceaseless wound, incurable wound_.
  syndriglce, _specially_.
  synn, f., _sin_.
  syn-scaa, m., _ceaseless scather, perpetual foe_.
  syn-sn:d, f., _huge bit_ [ceaseless bit].
  syan, see sian.
  syx, see siex.
  syxtig, see siextig.


#T.#

  tcen, n., _sign, token_; dat. sing., tcne ( 33, Note).
  t:can ( 128), _teach_.
  tam, _tame_.
  tela, _properly, well_ [til].
  t[e,]llan ( 128), _count, deem_ [tell]; pret. 3d sing., tealde.
  T[e,]mes, f., _the Thames_.
  ton, _arrange, create_; pret. sing., tode.
  Terfinna, m., gen. pl., _the Terfins_.
  t, see t.
  td, f., _tide, time, hour_.
  ten (ty:n), _ten_.
  til(l), _good_.
  tma, m., _time_.
  tintreglc, _full of torment_.
  t ( 94, (1)), _to, for, according to, as_;
    t hrfe 114, 2 = _for (as) a roof_ [cf. Biblical _to wife_,
      modern _to boot_].
  t, adv., _too_.
  tbrecan (p.81, Note 2), _break to pieces, knock about_.
  td:lan ( 126), _divide_.
  temnes (t emnes) ( 94, (4)), _along, alongside_.
  tforan ( 94, (1)), _before_.
  tgeodan ( 126), _join_.
  thopa, m., _hope_.
  tlicgan ( 115, Note 2), _separate, lie between_; 3d sing, indic.
      = tl.
  tl, see tlicgan.
  tolcan ( 109, Note 1), _destroy_ [the prefix t reverses the
      meaning of lcan, _to lock_].
  torn, m., _anger, insult_.
  t ( 68, (1)), m., _tooth_.
  tweard ( 94, (1)), _toward_.
  tweard, adj., _approaching, future_.
  trow, f., _pledge, troth_.
  trownes, f., _trust_.
  Trs, _Drausen_ (a city on the Drausensea).
  tn, m., _town, village_.
  tunge, f., _tongue_.
  tngerfa, m., _bailiff_ [town-reeve; so sheriff = shire-reeve].
  tungol, n., _star_.
  tw, see twgen.
  twgen, ( 89), _two, twain_.
  twntig, _twenty_.
  ty:n, see ten.


#.#

  , _then, when_;
     ... , _when ... then_;
     , _then when_ = _when_.
  , see s.
  :r, _there, where_;
    :r :r, _there where_ = _where_;
    :r ... sw 142, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 798]]= _wheresoever_; 145, 6
      [[_Beowulf_ 2731]]= _if so be that_.
  s, _afterwards, therefore, thus, because_;
    see s.
  t (tte = t e), _that, so that_.
  afian ( 130), _consent to_.
  anc, see [o,]nc.
  ancian ([o,]ncian) ( 130), _thank_.
  anon, see [o,]nan.
  s, see s.
  , see s (instr. sing.) and .
  e ( 75), _who, whom, which, that_.
  ah, _though, although_;
    ah e, _though, although_.
  earf, see urfan.
  earf, f., _need, benefit_.
  aw, m., _habit, custom_ [thews].
  egn (egen), m., _servant, thane, warrior_.
  [e,]nc(e)an ( 128), _think, intend_.
  ening (-ung), f., _service_;
    the pl.may mean _book of service_ (117, 17).
  od, f., _people, nation_.
  oden, m., _prince, lord_.
  odscipe, m., _discipline_.
  on (y:wan) ( 126), _oppress_ [ow].
  ow, m., _servant_.
  owa, m., _servant_.
  owotdm (owot-), m., _service_.
  s ( 73), _this_.
  ider, _thither_.
  iderweard, _thitherward_.
  n ( 76), _thine_.
  ing, n., _thing_;
    :nige inga, see 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.
  ingan ( 127), _arrange, appoint_.
  is, see s.
  issum, see s.
  hte, hton, see [e,]ncean.
  olian ( 130), _endure_ [thole].
  [o,]nan, _thence_.
  [o,]nc, m., _thanks_.
  one, see s.
  onne, _than, then, when_;
    onne ... onne, _when ... then_.
  rg, f., _time_.
  ra-ny:d, f., _compulsion, oppression, misery_ [throe-need].
  rora, see re.
  ridda, _third_.
  rie (ry:) ( 89), _three_.
  rm, see re.
  rst-hy:dig, _bold-minded_.
  rtig, _thirty_.
  rwung, f., _suffering_.
  ry:, see re.
  rym(m), m., _renown, glory, strength_.
  ry:, f., _power, multitude_ (pl.used in sense of sing.);
    asca ry:e 152, 23 [[_Wanderer_ 99]] = _the might of spears_.
  ry:-rn, n., _mighty house, noble hall_.
  ry:-word, n., _mighty word, excellent discourse_.
   ( 72), _thou_.
  hte, see yncan.
  urfan ( 136), _need_; pres. indic. 3d sing., earf; pret. 3d sing.,
      orfte;
    for-m m wtan ne earf Waldend fra moror-bealo mga 145, 17
      [[_Beowulf_ 2742]] = _therefore the Ruler of men need not charge
      me with the murder of kinsmen_.
  urh ( 94, (2)), _through_.
  us, _thus_.
  send, _thousand_.
  y:, see s.
  yder, see ider.
  yncan ( 128), _seem, appear_ (impersonal);
    m ync, _methinks, it seems to me_;
    him hte, _it seemed to him_.


#U.#

  hta, m., _dawn_; gen. pl., htna.
  unbeboht, _unsold_ [bebycgan = _to sell_].
  unc, _unknown, uncertain_ [uncouth].
  under, _under_ (with dat. and acc.).
  underst[o,]ndan ( 116), _understand_.
  underodan (-edan) ( 126), _subjectto_;
    past part. underoded = _subjected to, obedient to_ (with dat.).
  unforbrned, _unburned_.
  unfri, m., _hostility_.
  ungefge, _excessively_.
  ungemete, _immeasurably, very_.
  ungesewenlc, _invisible_ [past part. of son + lc].
  unlyfigend, _dead, dead man_ [unliving].
  unly:tel, _no little, great_.
  unriht, n., _wrong_;
    on unriht, see on.
  unrihtwsnes, f., _unrighteousness_.
  unspdig, _poor_.
  unwearnum, _unawares_.
  p (pp), _up_.
  pstgnes, f., _ascension_ [stgan].
  p-lang, _upright_.
  re ( 76), _our_.
  usses = gen. sing. neut. of ser, see ic.
  t, _out, outside_.
  tan, _from without, outside_.
  tanbordes, _abroad_.
  tg[o,]ng, m., _exodus_.
  uton, _let us_ (with infin.) [literally _let us go_ with infin. of
      purpose (see 137, 19-20, Note [[lines 641-42]]); uton = wuton,
      corrupted form of 1st pl.subj. of wtan, _togo_].
  t-weard, _outward bound, moving outwards_.


#W.#

  wc, _weak, insignificant_.
  wacian ( 130), _watch, be on guard_; imperative sing., waca.
  wadan ( 116), _go, tread_ [wade].
  w:g, m., _wave_.
  W:gmundigas, m. _Wgmundings_ (family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf
      belonged).
  wl, n., _slaughter, the slain_.
  wl-blat, _deadly_ [slaughter-pitiful].
  wlgfre, _greedy for slaughter_.
  wl-r:s, m., _mortal combat_ [slaughter-race].
  wl-row, _fierce in strife_.
  wlsliht (-sleaht), m., _slaughter_.
  wlstw, f., _battle-field_ [slaughter-place];
    wlstwe gewald, _possession of the battle-field_.
  w:pen, n., _weapon_.
  w:re, see bon.
  ws, see bon.
  wter, n., _water_.
  waldend, see _wealdend_.
  wan (w[o,]n), _wan, dark_.
  wanhy:dig, _heedless, rash_.
  wnigean (wnian) ( 130), _bewail, lament_ (trans.) [whine].
  warian ( 130), _attend, accompany_.
  wt, see witan.
  waum, m., _wave_; gen. pl., waema.
  weal(l), m., _wall, rampart_.
  wealdend ( 68, (3)), _wielder, ruler, lord_.
  wealh, m., _foreigner, Welshman_.
  wealhstd, m., _interpreter, translator_.
  weallan ( 117), _well up, boil, be agitated_; pret. 3d. sing.
      indic., woll.
  wealsteal(l), m., _wall-place, foundation_.
  weard, m., _ward, keeper_.
  wear, see weoran.
  weaxan ( 117), _wax, grow_.
  weg, m., _way_;
    hys weges, see  93, (3);
    on weg, see on.
  wel(l), _well, readily_.
  wela, m., _weal, prosperity, riches_.
  welm, see wielm.
  wnan ( 126), _ween, think, expect_.
  w[e,]ndan ( 127), _change, translate_ [wend, windan].
  w[e,]nian ( 130), _entertain_;
    w[e,]nian mid wynnum 149, 20 [[_Wanderer_ 29]] = _entertain
      joyfully_;
    w[e,]nede t wiste 149, 27 [[_Wanderer_ 36]] = _feasted_ (trans.).
  Weonodland (Weonoland), n., _Wendland_.
  weorc, n., _work, deed_.
  weorold (weoruld), see woruld.
  weorpan ( 110), _throw_.
  weoran ( 110), _be, become_.
  wer, m., _man_ [werwulf].
  wrig, _weary, dejected_.
  werod, n., _army, band_.
  wesan, see bon.
  Wesseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons_; gen. pl.= Wesseaxna.
  west, _west, westward_.
  westanwind, m., _west wind_.
  wste, _waste_.
  wsten, n., _waste, desert_.
  Wests:, f., _West Sea_ (west of Norway).
  Westseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons, Wessex_.
  wc, n., _dwelling_ [bailiwick].
  wcian ( 130), _stop, lodge, sojourn_ [wc].
  wdre, adv., _farther, more widely_ (comparative of wde).
  wds:, f., _open sea_.
  wielm (welm), m., _welling, surging flood_ [weallan].
  wf, n., _wife, woman_.
  wg, m., n., _war, battle_.
  wiga, m., _warrior_.
  wild, _wild_.
  wildor, n., _wild beast, reindeer_; dat. pl.= wildrum ( 33, Note).
  willa, m., _will, pleasure_; gen. pl., wilna (138, 16 [[_Beowulf_
      661]]).
  willan ( 134;  137, Note 3), _will, intend, desire_.
  wilnung, f., _wish, desire_;
    for :re wilnunga 119, 4 = _purposely_.
  Wiltn, m., _Wilton_ (in Wiltshire).
  wn, n., _wine_.
  wn-rn, n., _wine-hall_.
  Wnburne, f., _Wimborne_ (in Dorsetshire).
  wind, m., _wind_.
  wine, m., _friend_.
  Winedas, m. pl., _the Wends, the Wend country_.
  wine-dryhten, m., _friendly lord_.
  winelas, _friendless_.
  winem:g, m., _friendly kinsman_.
  wngeard, m., _vineyard_.
  winnan ( 110), _strive, fight_ [win].
  wnsl, n., _wine-hall_.
  wn-s[e,]le, m., _wine-hall_.
  winter, m., _winter_; dat. sing. = wintra.
  wintercearig, _winter-sad, winter-worn_.
  ws, _wise_.
  wsdm, m., _wisdom_.
  wse, _wisely_.
  wse, f., _manner, matter, affair_ [in this wise].
  ws-fst, _wise_ [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = shamefast].
  ws-hycgende, _wise-thinking_.
  Wsle, f., _the Vistula_.
  Wslema, m., _the mouth of the Vistula_.
  wisse, see witan.
  wist, f., _food, feast_.
  wita, m., _wise man, councillor_.
  witan ( 136), _know, show, experience_.
  wtan ( 102), _reproach, blame_ (with acc. of thing, dat. of person).
  wte, n., _punishment_.
  Wtland, n., _Witland_ (in Prussia).
  wi ( 94, (3)), _against, toward, with_;
    wi astan and wi pp on emnlange :m by:num lande, _toward the
      east, and upwards along the cultivated land_;
    wi earm gest 139, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 750]] = _supported himself on his
      arm_;
    gen[e,]red wi ne (dat.) 143, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 828]] = _had
      preserved it from (against) violence_.
  wierwinna, m., _adversary_.
  wifn ( 118), _grapple with_ (with dat.).
  wihabban ( 133), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.).
  wist[o,]ndan ( 116), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.).
  wl[o,]nc, _proud_.
  wd, see wadan.
  wolcen, n., _cloud_ [welkin]; dat. pl., wolcnum.
  wolde, see willan.
  wma, m., _noise, alarm, terror_.
  w[o,]n, see wan.
  wp, n., _weeping_.
  word, n., _word_.
  wrian ( 130), _totter, crumble_.
  worn, m., _large number, multitude_.
  woruld, f., _world_;
    t worulde btan :ghwilcum [e,]nde 102, 18 = _world without end_.
  woruldcund, _worldly, secular_.
  woruldhd, m., _secular life_ [world-hood].
  woruldrce, n., _world-kingdom, world_.
  worulding, n., _worldly affair_.
  wrclst, m., _track or path of an exile_.
  wr, _wroth, angry_; _foe, enemy_.
  wrtan ( 102), _write_.
  wucu, f., _week_.
  wudu, m., _wood, forest_.
  wuldor, n., _glory_.
  Wuldorfder ( 68, (2)), m., _Father of glory_; gen. sing.,
      Wuldorfder.
  Wuldur-cyning, m., _King of glory_.
  wulf, m., _wolf_.
  wund, f., _wound_.
  wund, _wounded_.
  wunden, _twisted, woven, convolute_ (past part. of windan).
  wundor, n., _wonder, marvel_.
  wundrian ( 130), _wonder at_ (with gen.).
  wurdon, see weoran.
  wuran, see weoran.
  wylf, f., _she wolf_.
  wylla, see willan.
  wyn-las, _joyless_.
  wynn, f., _joy, delight_.
  wynsum, _winsome, delightful_.
  wyrc(e)an ( 128), _work, make, compose_.
  wyrd, f., _weird, fate, destiny_.
  wyrhta, m., _worker, creator_ [-wright].
  wyrm, m., _worm, dragon, serpent_.
  wyrmlca, m., _serpentine ornamentation_.
  wyr (weor), _worthy_; see 114, 7-9, Note.

#Y.#

  ylca, see ilca.
  yldan ( 127), _delay, postpone_ [eald].
  yldu, f., _age_ [eld].
  ymbe (ymb) ( 94, (2)), _about, around, concerning_ [_um_while];
    s ymb iii niht 99, 2 = _about three nights afterwards_.
  ymb-ode, see ymb-gn.
  ymbe-sittend, _one who sits (dwells) round about another, neighbor_.
  ymb-gn ( 134), _go about, go around, circle_ (with acc.).
  yrfe-weard, m., _heir_.
  yrnan, see iernan.
  yrre, _ireful, angry_.
  yteren, _of an otter_ [_otor_].
  y:an ( 126), _lay waste_ (as by a deluge) [y: = _wave_].


II. GLOSSARY.

MODERN ENGLISH--OLD ENGLISH.


#A.#

  a, _n_ ( 77).
  abide, _bdan_ ( 102), _bdan_.
  about, _be_ ( 94, (1)), _ymbe_ ( 94,(2));
    to write about, _wrtan be_;
    to speak about (= of), _sprecan ymbe_;
    about two days afterwards, _s ymbe twgen dagas_.
  adder, _n:dre_ ( 64).
  afterwards, _s_ ( 93, (3)).
  against, _wi_ ( 94, (3)), _on_ ( 94,(3)).
  Alfred, _lfred_ ( 26).
  all, _eall_ ( 80).
  also, _ac_.
  although, _ah_ ( 105, 2).
  always, __; _ealne weg_ ( 98, (1)).
  am, _eom_ ( 40).
  an, see a.
  and, _[o,]nd_ (_and_).
  angel, [e,]ngel ( 26).
  animal, _dor_ ( 32).
  are, _sind, sint, sindon_ ( 40).
  army, _werod_ ( 32);
    Danish army, _h[e,]re_ ( 26);
    English army, _fierd_ ( 38).
  art, _eart_ ( 40).
  Ashdown, _scesdn_ ( 38).
  ask, _biddan_ ( 65, Note 3;  115, Note2).
  away, _aweg_.


#B.#

  battle-field, _wlstw_ ( 38).
  be, _bon_ ( 40);
    not to be, see  40, Note 2.
  bear, _beran_ ( 114).
  because, _for :m (e), for on (e)_.
  become, _weoran_ ( 110).
  before (temporal conjunction), _:r, :r :m e_ (105,2).
  begin, _onginnan_ ( 107, (1);  110).
  belong to, _belimpan t_ + dative ( 110).
  best, see good.
  better, see good.
  bind, _bindan_ ( 110).
  bird, _fugol_ ( 26).
  bite, _btan_ ( 102).
  body, _lc_ ( 32).
  bone, _bn_ ( 32).
  book, _bc_ ( 68).
  both ... and, _:ger ge ... ge_.
  boundary, _mearc_ ( 38).
  boy, _cnapa_ ( 64).
  break, _brotan_ ( 109), _brecan, brecan_ (114).
  brother, _bror_ ( 68, (2)).
  but, _ac_.
  by, _fr[o,]m_ (_fram_) ( 94, (1);  141, Note1).


#C.#

  Cdmon, _Cdm[o,]n_ ( 68, (1)).
  call, _htan_ ( 117, (1)).
  cease, cease from, _geswcan_ ( 102).
  child, _bearn_ ( 32).
  choose, _cosan_ ( 109).
  Christ, _Crst_ ( 26).
  church, _cirice_ ( 64).
  come, _cuman_ ( 114).
  comfort, _frfor_ ( 38).
  companion, _gefra_ ( 64).
  consolation, _frfor_ ( 38).
  create, _gescieppan_ ( 116).


#D.#

  Danes, _D[e,]ne_ ( 47).
  day, _dg_ ( 26).
  dead, _dad_ ( 80).
  dear (= beloved), _lof_ ( 80).
  deed, _d:d_ ( 38).
  die, _cwelan_ ( 114).
  division (of troops), _gefylce_ ( 32), _getruma_ (64).
  do, _dn_ ( 134).
  door, _dor_ ( 32), _duru_ ( 52).
  drink, _drincan_ ( 110).
  during, _on_ ( 94, (3)). See also  98.
  dwell in, _ban on_ ( 126, Note 2).

#E.#

  earl, _eorl_ ( 26).
  endure, _drogan_ ( 109).
  England, _[E,]nglal[o,]nd_ ( 32).
  enjoy, _brcan_ ( 62, Note 1;  109, Note1).
  every, _:lc_ ( 77).
  eye, _age_ ( 64).


#F.#

  father, _fder_ ( 68, (2)).
  field, _feld_ ( 51).
  fight, _feohtan, gefeohtan_ ( 110).
  find, _findan_ ( 110).
  finger, _finger_ ( 26).
  fire, _fy:r_ ( 32).
  fisherman, _fiscere_ ( 26).
  foreigner, _wealh_ ( 26).
  freedom, _frodm_ ( 26).
  friend, _wine_ ( 45), _frond_ ( 68,(3)).
  friendship, _frondscipe_ ( 45).
  full, _full_ (with genitive) ( 80).


#G.#

  gain the victory, _sige habban, sige niman_.
  gift, _giefu_ ( 38).
  give, _giefan_ (with dative of indirect object) (115).
  glad, _gld_ ( 81).
  glove, _glf_ ( 38).
  go, _gn_ ( 134), _faran_ ( 116).
  God, _God_ ( 26).
  good, _gd_ ( 80).


#H.#

  Halgoland, _Hlgoland_ ( 32).
  hall, _heall_ ( 38).
  hand, _h[o,]nd_ ( 52).
  hard, _heard_ ( 80).
  have, _habban_ ( 34);
    not to have, _nabban_ (p.32, Note).
  he, _h_ ( 53).
  head, _hafod_ ( 32).
  hear, _heran_ ( 126).
  heaven, _heofon_ ( 26).
  help, _helpan_ (with dative) ( 110).
  herdsman, _hierde_ ( 26).
  here, _hr_.
  hither, _hider_.
  hold, _healdan_ ( 117, (2)).
  holy, _hlig_ ( 82).
  horse, _mearh_ ( 26), _hors_ ( 32).
  house, _hs_ ( 32).


#I.#

  I, _ic_ ( 72).
  in, _on_ ( 94, (3)).
  indeed, _slce_.
  injure, _sc[e,]an_ (with dative) ( 116).
  it, _hit_ ( 53).


#K.#

  king, _cyning_ ( 26).
  kingdom, _rce_ ( 32), _cynerce_ (32).


#L.#

  land, _l[o,]nd_ ( 32).
  language, _spr:c_ ( 38), _geode_ (32).
  large, _micel_ ( 82).
  leisure, _:metta_ ( 64).
  let us, _uton_ (with infinitive).
  limb, _lim_ ( 32).
  little, _lytel_ ( 82).
  live in, _ban on_ ( 126, Note 2).
  lord, _hlford_ ( 26).
  love, _lufian_ ( 131).
  love (noun), _lufu_ ( 38).


#M.#

  make, _wyrcan_ ( 128).
  man, _s[e,]cg_ ( 26), _m[o,]n_ ( 68,(1)).
  many, _m[o,]nig_ ( 82).
  mare, _my:re_ ( 64).
  mead, _medu_ ( 51).
  Mercians, _Mierce_ ( 47).
  milk, _meolc_ ( 38).
  month, _mna_ ( 68, (1), Note 1).
  mouth, _m_ ( 26).
  much, _micel_ ( 96, (3)), _micle_ (97,(2)).
  murderer, _b[o,]na_ ( 64).
  my, _mn_ ( 76).


#N.#

  natives, _l[o,]ndlode_ ( 47).
  nephew, _nefa_ ( 64).
  new, _nwe_ ( 82).
  Northumbrians, _Norymbre_ ( 47).
  not, _ne_.


#O.#

  of, see about.
  on, _on_ ( 94, (3)), _ofer_ ( 94,(2)).
  one, _n_ ( 89);
    the one ... the other, _er ... er_.
  other, _er_ ( 77).
  our, _re_ ( 76).
  ox, _oxa_ ( 64).


#P.#

  place, _stw_ ( 38).
  plundering, _h[e,]rgung_ ( 38).
  poor, _earm_ ( 80), _unspdig_ ( 82).
  prosperous, _spdig_ ( 82).


#Q.#

  queen, _cwn_ ( 49).


#R.#

  reindeer, _hrn_ ( 26).
  remain, _bdan_ ( 102), _bdan_.
  retain possession of the battle-field, _gan wlstwe gewald_.
  rich, _rce_ ( 82), _spdig_ ( 82).
  ride, _rdan_ ( 102).


#S.#

  say, _cwean_ ( 115), _s[e,]cgan_ ( 133).
  scribe, _bcere_ ( 26).
  seal, _seolh_ ( 26).
  see, _son_ ( 118), _geson_.
  serpent, _n:dre_ ( 64).
  servant, _owa_ ( 64), _egn_ ( 26).
  shall, _sculan_ ( 136;  137, Note2).
  she, _ho_ ( 53).
  shepherd, _hierde_ ( 26).
  ship, _scip_ ( 32).
  shire, _scr_ ( 38).
  shoemaker, _scowyrhta_ ( 64).
  side, on both sides, _on gehwre h[o,]nd_.
  six, _siex_ ( 90).
  slaughter, _wl_ ( 32), _wlsliht_ (45).
  small, _ly:tel_ ( 82).
  son, _sunu_ ( 51).
  soul, _swol_ ( 38).
  speak, _sprecan_ ( 115).
  spear, _gr_ ( 26), _spere_ ( 32).
  stand, _st[o,]ndan_ ( 116).
  stone, _stn_ ( 26).
  stranger, _wealh_ ( 26), _cuma_ ( 64).
  suffer, _drogan_ ( 109).
  sun, _sunne_ ( 64).
  swift, _swift_ ( 80).


#T.#

  take, _niman_ ( 110).
  than, _onne_ ( 96, (6)).
  thane, _egn_ ( 26).
  that (conjunction), _t_.
  that (demonstrative), _s, so, t_ (28).
  that (relative), _e_ ( 75).
  the, _se, so, t_ ( 28).
  then, _, onne_.
  these, see this.
  they, _he_ ( 53).
  thing, _ing_ ( 32).
  thirty, _rtig_.
  this, _s, os, is_ ( 73).
  those, see that (demonstrative).
  thou, __ ( 72).
  though, _ah_ ( 105, 2).
  three, _re_ ( 89).
  throne, ascend the throne, _t rce fn_.
  throw, _weorpan_ ( 110).
  to, _t_ ( 94, (1)).
  tongue, _tunge_ ( 64).
  track, _spor_ ( 32).
  true, _s_ ( 80).
  truly, _slce_.
  two, _twgen_ ( 89).


#V.#

  very, _swe_.
  vessel, _ft_ ( 32).
  victory, _sige_ ( 45).

#W.#

  wall, _weall_ ( 26).
  warrior, _s[e,]cg_ ( 26), _eorl_ ( 26).
  way, _weg_ ( 26).
  weapon, _w:pen_ ( 32).
  well, _wel_ ( 97, (2)).
  Welshman, _Wealh_ ( 26).
  went, see go.
  westward, _west, westrihte_.
  whale, _hwl_ ( 26).
  what? _hwt_ ( 74).
  when, _, onne_.
  where? _hw:r_.
  which, _e_ ( 75).
  who? _hw_ ( 74).
  who (relative), _e_ ( 75).
  whosoever, _sw hw sw_ ( 77, Note).
  will, _willan_ ( 134;  137, Note 3).
  Wilton, _Wiltn_ ( 26).
  win, see gain.
  wine, _wn_ ( 32).
  wisdom, _wsdm_ ( 26).
  wise, _ws_ ( 80).
  with, _mid_ ( 94, (1));
    to fight with (= against), _gefeohtan wi_ (94,(3)).
  withstand, _wist[o,]ndan_ (with dative) ( 116).
  wolf, _wulf_ ( 26), _wylf_ ( 38).
  woman, _wf_ ( 32).
  word, _word_ ( 32).
  worm, _wyrm_ ( 45).


#Y.#

  ye, _g_ ( 72).
  year, _gar_ ( 32).
  yoke, _geoc_ ( 32).
  you, __ (singular), _g_ (plural) ( 72).
  your, _n_ (singular), _ower_ (plural) ( 76).

       *       *       *       *       *
           *       *       *       *
       *       *       *       *       *

Errata

The spelling "Fins" (translating " Finnas") is used consistently.
Errors were trivial, generally missing punctuation. Shakespeare
citations have been silently regularized to "I, ii, 3" form. The Old
English text was not checked for misprints.


Numbered Sections:

  9 Note
    to t.: #settan#, _to set_  [to t.]
  39
    NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems.
      [_final . missing_]
  41
    so hlignes[1], _holiness_.  [_comma missing_]
  95
    for :m, }  [_comma missing_]
  104
    corresponding with its function in Mn.E. [_final . missing_]
  130
    eard-ian, eard-ode ...  [_first comma missing_]
  131
    NOTE 1.  [NOTE. 1.]
  132
    hf-de, lif-de, secg-an,  [_all commas missing_]

Readings:

  Poetry: Structure: Meter: Type B:
    The type of B most frequently occurring is    |  .
      [_final . missing_]

  Beowulf: The Banquet in Heorot (page 138).
    [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.).  [_final . missing_]

Glossary:

  bgan ( 109, Note 1)  [Note, 1]
  dofol, m., n., _devil_;  [m. n.,]
  intinga, m., _cause, sake_.  [intinga.]
  laguld, f., _sea_ [lake-way, ld = _leading, direction, way_].
    [_closing bracket printed as parenthesis_]
  noran ( 93, (5)), _from the north_;
    [_second closing parenthesis missing_]
  s:l, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly];  [m. f.,]
  sfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sfte).
    [_closing parenthesis missing_]
  Swom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_.  [_final . missing_]
  tolcan ( 109, Note 1), _destroy_ ...  [_section mark  missing_]
  wi ( 94, (3)), ...  [_section mark  missing_]






End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by
C. Alphonso Smith

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR ***

***** This file should be named 31277-8.txt or 31277-8.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31277/

Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net


Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.

Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.



*** START: FULL LICENSE ***

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
https://gutenberg.org/license).


Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works

1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.  See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.

1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org

1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.

1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that

- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
     License.  You must require such a user to return or
     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
     Project Gutenberg-tm works.

- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
     of receipt of the work.

- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.

1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.


Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.


Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at https://pglaf.org

For additional contact information:
     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
     Chief Executive and Director
     gbnewby@pglaf.org


Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit https://pglaf.org

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate


Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.


Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.


Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

     https://www.gutenberg.org

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
